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Chapter 20: Nuclear Reactions and

Their Role in Chemistry

Brady & Senese, 5th Ed

1
Index
20.1. Mass and energy are conserved in all of their forms
20.2. The energy required to break a nucleus into separate
nucleons is called the nuclear binding energy
20.3. Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or
electromagnetic radiation by unstable atomic nuclei
20.4. Stable isotopes fall within the "band of stability" on a
plot based on numbers of protons and neutrons
20.5. Transmutation is the change of one isotope into another
20.6. How is radiation measured?
20.7. Radionuclides have many medical and analytical
applications
20.8 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion release large amounts
of energy
2
Mass & Energy

• Particle mass is not constant: it


depends on the speed of the
particle and the speed of light, c
• Only when the particle is at rest
will the velocity be constant mo
• Here:
m
 
v 2
 mo=resting mass of the particle 1  
 m=particle in motion c
 c=speed of light (2.998 x 108 m/s)
 v=velocity of particle (m/s)

20.1 Mass and energy are conserved in all of their forms 3


The Law Of Conservation of Mass & Energy

• Since particle mass can change as a result of its


kinetic energy, energy and mass are seen as
interconvertible
• Einstein’s equation shows the energy relationship:
 E=mc2 should be written as E= moc2
 very small changes in mass have significant energy
conversions

20.1 Mass and energy are conserved in all of their forms 4


Nuclear Stability

• Nuclides are the nuclei of isotopes


• Nuclides that are unstable are termed
radionuclides, and are said to be radioactive
• radionuclides change and emit energy
• In nuclear reactions there is a slight change in
mass (mass defect) and a change in the energy that
holds the nucleus intact (binding energy)

20.1 Mass and energy are conserved in all of their forms 5


Nuclear Mass

• The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the


mass of the particles that compose it (nucleons)
• As the nucleons combine to form the nucleus
(nuclear fusion), this mass defect is released as
binding energy
• The higher the binding energy, the more stable the
nuclide

20.2 The energy required to break a nucleus into separate nucleons is called the nuclear 6
binding energy
Your Turn!

How many nucleons are in an atom of Pt-198?


A. 78
B. 120
C. 198
D. not enough information

20.2 The energy required to break a nucleus into separate nucleons is called the nuclear 7
binding energy
Learning Check: How much energy is it?

• Resting masses of the nucleons are:


 p+: 1.00727647 u
 n0: 1.008664904 u
• In the formation of a 2H nucleus, the resting mass
is 2.014101 u. What is the mass defect in u? What
is the binding energy in J?

m=(1.00727647+1.008664904)-(2.014101)
m=0.00184 u
E=2.75×10-13J

20.2 The energy required to break a nucleus into separate nucleons is called the nuclear 8
binding energy
Your Turn!
198Pthas a resting mass of 197.9678696. What is the
mass defect? Resting masses of the nucleons are:
p+: 1.00727647 u; n0: 1.008664904 u
A. 1.64u
B. 0.0016u
C. 0.20
D. Can’t tell from this information

20.2 The energy required to break a nucleus into separate nucleons is called the nuclear 9
binding energy
Stability as a function of binding energy

20.2 The energy required to break a nucleus into separate nucleons is called the nuclear 10
binding energy
Radioactive Decay (Radioactivity)

• The presence of many p+ in the small nuclear


volume means that there is repulsion
• Neutrons help to insulate the protons from one
another, but it is the nuclear strong force that
overcomes this repulsion
• If there is a difference in the repulsive force and
the nuclear strong force, the nucleus is unstable
• Unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 11


unstable atomic nuclei
Alpha (α ) Radiation
4
2 

• The nucleus releases a stream of 4He nuclei


 alpha particles are the most massive, and are fast
moving
 their size limits their penetrating power
• Losing an alpha particle decreases the atomic
number of the starting nucleus

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 12


unstable atomic nuclei
A
Nuclear Equations z Sy
• Track the changes in nuclear composition
• The sum of the reactant mass numbers (A) must
equal the sum of product mass numbers
 (238=234 + 4)
• The sum of reactant atomic numbers (Z) must
equal the sum of product mass numbers.
 (92 = 90 + 2)
238
92 U Th  He 234
90
4
2

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 13


unstable atomic nuclei
Learning Check

Write balanced nuclear equations describing the


following alpha decay processes
• Rf-255 undergoes alpha decay
255
104 Rf  α  No 4
2
251
102
• W-160 undergoes alpha decay
160
74 W α  Hf 4
2
156
72

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 14


unstable atomic nuclei
Your Turn!
155Tm undergoes alpha decay. What is the mass
number of the other product?
A. 155
B. 151
C. 153
D. None of these

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 15


unstable atomic nuclei
Beta (β) Radiation 0
1 
• The nucleus releases a stream of electrons
• When formed by a nucleus (β decay), the β
results from neutron splitting into p+ and e- and
an antineutrino ( )

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 16


unstable atomic nuclei
Learning Check

Write balanced nuclear equations describing:


• thorium-234 releases a beta particle
234
90 Th  β Pu  ν 0
1
234
91
0
0

• Tl-207 undergoes beta decay to form Pb-207


207
83 Tl  β Pb ν 0
1
207
82
0
0

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 17


unstable atomic nuclei
Your Turn!
172Tm undergoes β emission. What is the atomic
number of the resulting element?
A. 172
B. 174
C. 69
D. 70
E. None of these

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 18


unstable atomic nuclei
Massless Radiation

• Gamma (  ) Radiation
0
0

 nucleus releases high energy photons.


 γ are fast, highly energetic and highly
penetrating
 most alpha and beta decay is accompanied
by gamma radiation to reduce the energy of
the resulting nuclide
• X-Rays are occasionally emitted by
synthetic radionuclides
20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 19
unstable atomic nuclei
Learning Check
Write a balanced nuclear equation that describes:
• Co-60 undergoes beta decay that also releases gamma
radiation
60
27 Co β γ  Ni 0
1
0
0
60
28
• Tc-99 undergoes beta decay that also releases gamma

Tc  β γ  Ru
radiation 99 0 0 99
43 1 0 44

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 20


unstable atomic nuclei
Positron Emission 0 e
1
• Synthetic radionuclides
often emit positrons +β
• It is usually
accompanied by
neutrino emission.
• It forms in the nucleus
by the conversion of a
proton to a neutron

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 21


unstable atomic nuclei
Annihilation By Antimatter

• Positrons and electrons are


equal in magnitude and
opposite in charge, hence
they cancel one another,
annihilation
• Particles that cancel known
matter are termed antimatter

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 22


unstable atomic nuclei
Other Forms of Decay

• Neutron emission
 some unstable nuclides emit neutrons to
improve their stability
• Electron (β) capture
 creates neutrons, β + p+→n0
 does not change an atom's mass number,
only its atomic number
 causes photons of X-rays and γ radiation
to be emitted as other electrons drop
down to fill the gap

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 23


unstable atomic nuclei
Disintegration Series

• When decay processes occur, the new products


may not be stable
• Subsequent reactions occur until the result is
stable

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 24


unstable atomic nuclei
Half-life (t1/2)

• Radioactive decay is a first order process that is


governed by a rate constant, k.
• Half-life is the amount of time required for a
sample quantity to diminish by one half. It is
often shown in disintegration series in lieu of k.
• The first order integrated rate law is:
 Ao 
ln    kt
A
Thus, at half - life, (Ao/A)  2
ln2
Hence ,  t1/2
k
20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 25
unstable atomic nuclei
Learning Check
Given that the half life of Pm-156 is 5.53 y, what is the
decay rate constant in s-1 ?

ln2 ln2
 t1/2, hence k
k t1/2
ln2 y da h
   k
5.53 y 365.25da 24h 3600s

3.97 x 10-9 s-1

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 26


unstable atomic nuclei
Your Turn!

I-132 is used for radioactive tracing in medical


diagnostics. It has a half-life of 2.295 h. What
percentage will remain in it have after 2 days?
A. 5.06 (10-5) %
B. 8.33 %
C. 54.7 %
D. 3.85(10-4) %

20.3 Radioactivity is an emission of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation by 27


unstable atomic nuclei
The Band of Stability

• The relative number of


p+ and n0 can be used to
predict the stability of a
nuclide
• Comparison to the band
of stability allows us to
predict the mechanism
of decay
• No isotope above
element 83, bismuth,
has a stable isotope

20.4 Stable isotopes fall within the “band of stability” on a plot based on numbers of 28
protons and neutrons
Your Turn!
Is Si-28 stable?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Not enough
information
given

20.4 Stable isotopes fall within the “band of stability” on a plot based on numbers of 29
protons and neutrons
Special Stability Rules
• Odd/Even Rule: if the numbers of n0 and p+ in a
nucleus are both even, the isotope is more likely to
be stable than when both numbers are odd
 H-2, Li-6, B-10, N-14, La-138
• Isotopes with magic numbers of protons or
neutrons, are more stable than the rest as long as
they are in the band of stability
• The magic numbers of nucleons are 2, 8, 20, 28,
50, 82, and 126

20.4 Stable isotopes fall within the “band of stability” on a plot based on numbers of 30
protons and neutrons
Transmutation By Fusion

• When particles are aimed at the nucleus, they enter


with both energy and mass
• The resulting new nuclide is called a compound
nucleus (designated with a *)
• The compound nucleus decays, creating a nuclide
different from the original, a process termed
transmutation

20.5 Transmutation is the change of one isotope into another 31


Measuring Radioactive Activity

Beta and gamma radiation is ionizing, thus, its


presence can be monitored electrically
 Geiger Counter-ionizing radiation creates electrical
current. The amount of current relates to the amount
of radiation.
 Scintillation counter-particles collide with material
that glows when struck. The emission is measured
with a phototube.
 Film Dosimeter-radiation causes excitation of atoms,
hence light emission. The higher the exposure, the
darker the image on photographic film.

20.6 How is radiation measured? 32


Activity

• Units of measure:
 Becquerel (Bq)- number of disintegrations per second (dps)
 Curie (Ci)=3.7 × 1010 Bq
• The Law of Radioactive Decay:
 Activity=kN
 where k is the first order decay constant
 and N is the number of radioactive nuclides.

20.6 How is radiation measured? 33


Learning Check

What is the activity of the


following? k=4.39 x 10-18 s-1
N=6.0223 x 1023
• 1 mole of U-238 that has a
A=3 x 106 dps
half-life of 5 x 109 y
• 1 g of Pb-206 that has a half
life of 138 da k=5.8 x 10-8 s-1
N=2.9 x 1021 atoms
A=1.7 x 1014 dps

20.6 How is radiation measured? 34


Your Turn!

An activity dosimeter reveals that a 1.0 L air sample


has Rn-222 with an activity of 8.00 (1023) dps. If
the half life is 3.8235 da, how many moles of Rn
are present.
A. 0.594 mol
B. 1.68 mol
C. 6.33(10-5) mol
D. Not enough information is given.

20.6 How is radiation measured? 35


Exposure Units

• Not all materials equally absorb radiation, thus the


activity doesn’t describe the effect of the exposure.
 1 gray (Gy) =1J absorbed energy/kg material
 1rad = absorption of 10−2 J/ kilogram of tissue.
 these units don’t take into account the type of radiation
• Sieverts(Sv) are units of dose equivalent, H.
 H=DQN
 H= dose in Sv, D= dose in Gy, Q=radiation properties,
N=other factors.
 rem-=10-2 Sv

20.6 How is radiation measured? 36


Radiation Intensity
• Intensity of radiation varies with distance from the
source
• The farther you are from an emitter, the lower the
intensity of exposure
• The relationship is governed by the Inverse Square
Law, where I is intensity and d is distance from the
source
2
I1 d2
 2
I2 d1
20.6 How is radiation measured? 37
Learning Check
• If the activity of a sample is 10 units at 5 meters from the
source, what is it at 10 m? I d2 1
 2

I2 d12
  2
I1 5m
2.5 units    2
10 u 10m 
• What distance is needed to reduce 1 unit at 1 yd to the 0.05
units?
I1 d22
 2
I2 d1
4 yd 1 unit 
d  2
    2
2

0.05 units 1yd 

20.6 How is radiation measured? 38


Your Turn!

In April 1986, 9.7 Bq/m3 of activity were recorded


in Vienna Austria, about 600 mi from Chernobyl.
Assuming that there were no wind currents able
to carry the material this quickly, what was the
activity 1 mile from the source?
A. 3.5(106) Bq/m3
B. 2.9(10-7) Bq/m3
C. 5.8(103) Bq/m3
D. None of these.

20.7 Radionuclides have medical and analytical applications 39


Applications of Radioactive Decay

• Diagnostics using radioisotopes (tracer analysis)


• Detection of trace elements (neutron activation
analysis)
• Determination of the age of artifacts (carbon
dating)
• Detection of trace elements (neutron activation
analysis)

20.7 Radionuclides have medical and analytical applications 40


Learning Check

If the half life of C-14 is 5730 years, what time is


needed for the ratio of C-14/C-12 to drop from
1.2× 10−12 to 2.5×10-36?

k=3.8×10-12 M/s
t=1.4×1013 s = 4.5 × 105 y

20.7 Radionuclides have medical and analytical applications 41


Nuclear Fission

• The disintegration of a nuclide into 2 or more


smaller nuclides
• Can be initiated by firing small particles at a
nuclide to form an unstable compound nucleus
• Isotopes that can undergo fission after n0-capture
are fissile
• Is the basis for nuclear fuel cells

20.8 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion release large amounts of energy 42
Chain Reaction
• Fission reaction
in which one of
the products
initiates further
reactions
• Requires a
critical mass of
fissionable
material
• May be regulated
using control
rods
20.8 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion release large amounts of energy 43
Harnessing Nuclear Power

20.8 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion release large amounts of energy 44
Fusion
• occurs when light nuclei join to form a heavier
nucleus
• on a mass basis, fusion yields more than five times
as much energy as fission
• Thermonuclear fusion uses high temperatures to
overcome electrostatic repulsions between nuclei
• Is the source of the energy released in the
explosion of a H-bomb (The energy needed to
trigger the fusion is provided by the explosion of a
fission bomb)
• Is the source of energy in stars

20.8 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion release large amounts of energy 45

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