Neuro Anatomy

microscopis I
Bambang Soemantri
Two organ systems coordinate
and direct activities of body
• Nervous system
– Swift, brief responses to stimuli
• Endocrine system
– Adjusts metabolic operations
– Directs long-term changes
 Anatomical Organization of the
Nervous system
• Central Nervous system :
– Brain
– Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system
– Ganglion
– Cranial nerves
– Spinal nerves
• PNS further subdivided into:
– Sensory division and Motor division
• Motor division further subdivided into:
– Somatic and Autonomic
• Autonomic further subdivided into:
– Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Blue arrows: afferent signals
Red arrows: efferent signals
An Overview of the Nervous
System
 Nervous system includes all
neural tissue in body
• Central Nervous System
– Brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System
– All neural tissue outside CNS
 Functional divisions of nervous
system
• Afferent
– Sensory information from receptors to CNS
• Efferent
– Motor commands to muscles and glands
– Somatic division
• Voluntary control over skeletal muscle
– Autonomic division
• Involuntary regulation of smooth and cardiac muscle,
glands
Histology of Neural Tissue
 Cells in Nervous Tissue
• Neurons
• Neuroglia
 Neuroglia (Glia)
• about half the volume of cells in the CNS
• smaller than neurons
• 5 to 50 times more numerous
• do NOT generate electrical impulses
• divide by mitosis
• Four types in the CNS
– Astrocytes
– Oligodendrocytes
– Microglia
– Ependymal cells
Neuroglia
Neuroglia (Neuroglial
(Neuroglial Cells)
Cells)

Central Neuroglia Peripheral Neuroglia

Astrocyte Schwann Cell
protoplasmic astrocyte
fibrous astrocyte
in peripheral nerve
Oligodendrocyte and ganglion
perineuronal satellite cell Capsular (Satellite) Cell
interfascicular cell in ganglion
Microglia
Ependymal Cell
 Central
Neuroglia

Astrocyte Oligodendrocyte Microglia

 Astrocytes
• Largest of glial cells
• Most numerous
• Star shaped with many processes
projecting from the cell body
• Help form and maintain blood-brain barrier
• Provide structural support for neurons
• Maintain the appropriate chemical
environment for generation of nerve impulses/action potentials
• Regulate nutrient concentrations for neuron survival
• Regulate ion concentrations - generation of action potentials by neurons
• Take up excess neurotransmitters
• Assist in neuronal migration during brain development
• Perform repairs to stabilize tissue
 Astrocyte
Astrocyte

• Protoplasmic Astrocyte: Gray Matter

• Fibrous Astrocyte: White Matter

Cell Body
‘potato’ shape nucleus, scarse pale cytopasm
Processes
- GFAP (glial fibroacidic protein): intermediate filament
- Perivascular Feet (Foot Process, Vascular End-Feet)
surrounding blood vessels
Specialized Astrocytes
- Bergmann’s gial cell, Muller cell, pituicyte
 Oligodendrocytes
• Most common glial cell
type
• Each forms myelin
sheath around the axons
of neurons in CNS
• Analogous to Schwann
cells of PNS
• Form a supportive
• fewer processes than astrocytes network around CNS
• round or oval cell body neurons
 Microglia

• few processes
• derived from mesodermal cells
that also give rise to monocytes
and macrophages

• Small cells found near blood vessels

• Phagocytic role - clear away dead cells
• protect CNS from disease through phagocytosis of
microbes
• migrate to areas of injury where they clear away debris
of injured cells - may also kill healthy cells
 Ependymal Cells
• epithelial cells arranged in a
single layer
• range in shape from cuboidal
to columnar

• Form epithelial membrane lining cerebral cavities (ventricles) & central

canal - that contain CSF
• Produce & circulate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) found in these chambers
• CSF = colourless liquid that protects the brain and SC against
chemical & physical injuries, carries oxygen, glucose and other necessary
chemicals from the blood to neurons and neuroglia
 PNS: Satellite Cells

• Flat cells surrounding PNS axons

• Support neurons in the PNS
 PNS: Schwann Cells

• each cell surrounds multiple unmyelinated PNS axons with a

single layer of its plasma membrane
• Each cell produces part of the myelin sheath surrounding an
axon in the PNS
• contributes regeneration of PNS axons
 Neurons
•what is the main defining characteristic of neurons?
•have the property of electrical excitability - ability to produce
action potentials or impulses in response to stimuli
 Representative Neuron

1. cell body or soma
-single nucleus with prominent nucleolus
-Nissl bodies
-rough ER & free ribosomes for protein
synthesis
-proteins then replace neuronal cellular
components for growth
and repair of damaged axons in the PNS
-neurofilaments or neurofibrils
give cell shape and support -
bundles of
intermediate filaments
-microtubules move material
inside cell
-lipofuscin pigment clumps
(harmless aging) - yellowish
brown
Neurons
2. Cell processes =
dendrites (little trees)
- the receiving or input
portion of the neuron
-short, tapering and
highly branched
-surfaces specialized
for contact with other
neurons
-cytoplasm contains
Nissl bodies &
mitochondria
3. Cell processes = axons
• Conduct impulses away from cell body-
propagates nerve impulses to another
neuron
• Long, thin cylindrical process of cell
• contains mitochondria, microtubules &
neurofibrils - NO ER/NO protein synth.
• joins the soma at a cone-shaped elevation =
axon hillock
• first part of the axon = initial segment
• most impulses arise at the junction of the
axon hillock and initial segment = trigger
zone
• cytoplasm = axoplasm
• plasma membrane = axolemma
• Side branches = collaterals arise from the
axon
• axon and collaterals end in fine processes
called axon terminals
• Swollen tips called synaptic end bulbs
contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters
 Axonal Transport
• Cell body is location for most protein synthesis
– neurotransmitters & repair proteins
• however the axon or axon terminals require proteins
– e.g. neurotransmitters
• Axonal transport system moves substances
– slow axonal flow
• movement of axoplasm in one direction only -- away from cell
body
• movement at 1-5 mm per day
• replenishes axoplasm in regenerating or maturing neurons
– fast axonal flow
• moves organelles & materials along surface of microtubules
• at 200-400 mm per day
• transports material in either direction
• for use in the terminals or for recycling in cell body
 Axonal
Axonal (Axoplasmic)
(Axoplasmic) Transport
Transport
Components of Axonal (Axoplasmic) Transport
Components Velocity (mm/day) Transporting
Substances

Anterograde Axonal Transport

Fast Transport 200-400 synaptic vesicle, enzymes
neurotransmitters
Mitochondrial Transport 50-100 mitochondria
Slow Transport
Slow Components a (SCa) 0.1 - 1.0 tubulin, neurofilament
protein
Slow Comnponent b (SCb) 2-6 actin, clathrine,
calmodulins
spectrin, cytoplasmic
enzymes
Retrograde Axonal Transport 100-200 prelysosomal vesicles,
recycled proteins, HRP,
neurotrophic viruses
Mechanism
Mechanism of
of
Axonal
Axonal
Transport
Transport

Fast
Fast
Anterograde
Anterograde
Axonal
Axonal transport
transport
and
and
Retrograde
Retrograde
Axonal
Axonal transport
transport
Functional Classification of Neurons
• Sensory (afferent) neurons
– transport sensory information from skin, muscles,
joints, sense organs & viscera to CNS
• Motor (efferent) neurons
– send motor nerve impulses to muscles & glands
• Interneurons (association) neurons
– connect sensory to motor neurons
– 90% of neurons in the body
 Sensory Neurons
• Afferent division of PNS
• Deliver sensory information from sensory receptors to CNS
– free nerve endings: bare dendrites associated with pain, itching,
tickling, heat and some touch sensations
– Exteroceptors: located near or at body surface, provide information
about external environment
– Proprioceptors: located in inner ear, joints, tendons and muscles,
provide information about body position, muscle length and tension,
position of joints
– Interoceptors: located in blood vessels, visceral organs and NS
-provide information about internal environment
-most impulses are not perceived – those that are,
are interpreted as pain or pressure
 Sensory Neurons
• Sensory receptors cont…
– mechanoreceptors: detect pressure, provide sensations of touch,
pressure, vibration, proprioception, blood vessel stretch,
hearing and equilibrium
– thermoreceptors: detect changes in temperature
– nociceptors: respond to stimuli resulting from damage (pain)
– photoreceptors: light
– osmoreceptors: detect changes in OP in body fluids
– chemoreceptors: detect chemicals in mouth (taste), nose (smell)
and body fluids

-analgesia: relief from pain

-drugs: aspirin, ibuprofen – block formation of prostaglandins that
stimulate the nociceptors
-novocaine – block nerve impulses along pain nerves
-morphine, opium & derivatives (codeine) – pain is felt but not perceived in
brain (blocks morphine and opiate receptors in pain centers)
 Motor Neurons
• Efferent pathways
• Stimulate peripheral structures
– Somatic motor neurons
• Innervate skeletal muscle
– Visceral motor neurons
• Innervate all other peripheral effectors
• Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
 Motor Units
• Each skeletal fiber has only ONE
NMJ
• MU = Somatic neuron + all the
skeletal muscle fibers it innervates
• Number and size indicate
precision of muscle control
• Muscle twitch
– Single momentary contraction
– Response to a single stimulus
• All-or-none theory
– Either contracts completely or not
at all
• Motor units in a whole muscle fire asynchronously
some fibers are active others are relaxed
delays muscle fatigue so contraction can be sustained

• Muscle fibers of different motor units are intermingled so that net distribution of
force applied to the tendon remains constant even when individual muscle
groups cycle between contraction and relaxation.
Structural Classification of Neurons

• Based on number of processes found on cell body

– multipolar = several dendrites & one axon
• most common cell type in the brain and SC
– bipolar neurons = one main dendrite & one axon
• found in retina, inner ear & olfactory
– unipolar neurons = one process only, sensory only (touch, stretch)
• develops from a bipolar neuron in the embryo - axon and dendrite fuse and then
branch into 2 branches near the soma - both have the structure of axons
(propagate APs) - the axon that projects toward the periphery = dendrites
Structural Classification of Neurons
• Named for histologist that first described them
or their appearance
•Purkinje = cerebellum
•Renshaw = spinal cord

• others are named for shapes

e.g. pyramidal cells
 Classification of neurons by cell
size
• 1. golgi type I :
– Neurons have a long axon and large soma
• 2. Golgy type II :
– Neurons have short axon undergoes
extensive terminal aeborization and small
soma
The Nerve Impulse
 Continuous versus Saltatory
Conduction
• Continuous conduction
(unmyelinated fibers)
– An action potential spreads
(propagates) over the surface of the
axolemma
– as Na+ flows into the cell during
depolarization, the voltage of
adjacent areas is effected and their
voltage-gated Na+ channels open
– step-by-step depolarization of each
portion of the length of the
axolemma
 Saltatory Conduction
• Saltatory conduction
-depolarization only at nodes of
Ranvier - areas along the axon
that are unmyelinated and
where there is a high density of
voltage-gated ion channels

-current carried by ions flows

through extracellular fluid from
node to node
 Rate of Impulse Conduction
• Properties of axon
• Presence or absence of myelin sheath

• Diameter of axon
 Myelin
Myelin

Conduction velocity is proportional to

1. The Length of Internodal Segment
2. Thickness of Myelin
3. Diameter of Nerve Fiber
Synaptic Communication
 Synapse
• Synapse
– Site of intercellular communication
between 2 neurons or between a
neuron and an effector (e.g. muscle)
• Originates in the soma
• Travels along axons
• Permit communication between neurons
and other cells
– Initiating neuron = presynaptic neuron
– Receiving neuron = postsynaptic
neuron
• Most are axodendritic axon -> dendrite
• Some are axoaxonic – axon > axon
 Tipes of synapses
• Axodendritic:
– Between an axon and a dendrite
• Axosomatic:
– Between an axon and a soma
• Axoaxonic:
– Between two axon
• Dendrodendritic:
– between two dendrites
 Synaptic morphology
• Presynaptic membrane:
– Contains metochondria, a few elements of
SER, and an abundance of synaptic vesicles.
• Synaptic cleft
• Postsynaptic membrane:
– Contains neorotransmitter receptors
 SYNAPSE
SYNAPSE

Ÿ Presynaptic Portion: Synaptic Button

- synaptic vesicle
- mitochondria
- presynaptic membrane: tubulin
Ÿ Synaptic Cleft
- 20-30 nm
Ÿ Postsynaptic Portion
- postsynaptic membrane: actin, fodrin, spectrin
- mitochondria
SYNAPSE
SYNAPSE
 Impuls transmission at synapse
can occur:
• Electrically
• Chemically
VIEW OF THE CHEMICAL
SYNAPSE & FUNCTION
 Neurotransmitters
• Are signaling molecules that are released
at the presynaptic membranes and
activate receptors on postsynaptic
membranes.
 Neurotransmitters
• More than 100 identified
• Some bind receptors and cause channels to
open
• Others bind receptors and result in a second
messenger system
• Results in either excitation or inhibition of the
target
• Represented by three groups:
– Small molecules transmitters
– Neuropeptides
– Gases
• Small molecule neurotransmitter :
– Acetylcholine
– Amino acids : Glutamat, Aspartat, GABA
– Biogenic amines : modified amino acids
• Catecholamines : Epinephrine, NE, Dopamine
• Serotonin
• Neuropeptides :
– Substane P; Opoid peptides (endorphine,
enkephaline, dynorphines); hypothalamic releasing
hormones; hormones stored in and release from
neurohypophyse
• Gases : NO and CO
 Removal of Neurotransmitter
• Diffusion
– move down concentration gradient
• Enzymatic degradation
– acetylcholinesterase
• Uptake by neurons or glia cells
– neurotransmitter transporters
• NE, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin
 Peripheral nervous system
• The PNS includes the peripheral nerves
and nerve cell bodies located outside
the CNS
• Peripheral nerves are bundles of nerve
fibers (axons) located outside the CNS
and surrounded by connective tissue
sheaths. These bundles (fascicles) may
be observed with the unaided eye.
Usually, each bundles has both sensory
and motor components.
Peripheral Nerve
Composition
Composition of
of Peripheral
Peripheral Nerve
Nerve

 Nerve Fiber
Myelinated Nerve Fiber
Axon, Myelin sheath, Schwann cell
Unmyelinated Nerve Fiber
Axon, Schwann cell
 Connective Tissue Sheath
Endoneurium
Perineurium – blood vessels
Epineurium
 Connective tissue investment
• Connective tissue investments of
peripheral nerves include the:
– Epineurium
– Perineurium
– Endoneurium
 Epineurium
• Is the outermost layer
• Is composed of dense irregular,
collagenous connective tissue
containing thick elastic fibers that
completely ensheathe the nerve. Collagen
fibers within the sheath are aligned and
oriented to prevent damage by
overstretching of the nerve bundle.
 Perineurium
• The middle layer of connective tissue
investments, covers each bundle of
nerve fibers (fascicle) within the nerve.
• Composition:
– Dense connective tissue but is thinner
than epineurium.
 Endoneurium
• The innermost layer connective tissue
investment of a nerve, surrounds
individual nerve fibers (axons).
• Is a loose connective tissue composed
of a thin layer of reticular fibers (produced
by Schwann cells), scattered fibroblasts,
macrophages, and mast cells.
• The endoneurium is in contact with the
basal lamina of the Schwann cells.
 Somatic motor and autonomic
nervous systems
• Functionally, the motor component is divided
into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
• The somatic nerves systems provides motor
impulses to the skeletal muscles
• The autonomic nerves systems provides motor
impulses to the smooth muscles of the viscera,
cardiac muscle and secretory cells of the
exocrine and endocrine glands.
 Motor component of the somatic
nervous system
• Motor innervation to skeletal muscle is
provided by somatic nerves from spinal
and selected cranial nerves.
• The cell bodies of these nerve fibers
originate in the CNS
Autonomic nervous system = ANS
(involuntary , visceral)
• Is generally defined as a motor system.
• Controls the viscera of the body by
supplying the general visceral efferent
(visceral motor) component to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
• The autonomic nervous system possesses
two neurons between the CNS and the
effector organ.
• Cell bodies of the first neuron lie in the
CNS and their axons are usually
myelinated.
• These preganglionic fibers (axons) seek
an autonomic ganglion located outside the
CNS, where they synapse on multipolar
cell bodies of postganglionic neurons.
• Postganglionic fibers usually unmyelinated
although they always are enveloped by
Schwann cells, exit the ganglion to
terminate on the effector organ.
• The ANS is subdivided into two
functionally deferent divisions:

– The sympathetic nervous system

– The parasympathetic nervous system

 Ganglia
• Are aggregations of cell bodies of neurons
located outside the CNS, there are two
types of ganglia:
– Sensory
– Autonomic
 Sensory ganglia
• Sensory ganglia house cells bodies of
sensory neurons.
• Cell of the sensory ganglia are
pseudounipolar which enveloped by
cuboidal capsule cells. These capsule
cells are surrounded by connective
tissue capsule composed of satellite
cells and collagen.
 Autonomic ganglia
• Autonomic ganglia house cells bodies of
postganglionic autonomic nerves.
• Nerve cells bodies of autonomic ganglia
are motor in function.
 Central nervous system
• The CNS, composed of :
the brain and the spinal cord,
consist of :
white matter and gray matter without
intervening connective tissue elements ;
therefore, the CNS has the consistency of a
semifirm gel.
Continued

• White matter is composed mostly of

myelineted fibers a long with some
unmyelineted fibers and neoroglial cells.
• Gray matter is consist of aggregation of
neuronal cells bodies, dendrites, and
unmyelineted portion of axons as well
as neuroglial cells.
• Gray matter in the brain is located at the
periphery (cortex) of the cerebrum and
cerebellum. Whereas the white matter
lies deep to the cortex and surrounds
the basal ganglia.
continued

• Spinal cord:
– White matter is located in the periphery,
whereas grey matter lies deep in the spinal
cord, where it forms an H shape in cross
section.
– Central canal lined by ependymal cells.
 Meninges
• Are three connective tissue covering the
brain and spinal cord.
• Meninges consist of:
– Dura mater : the outermost layer
– Arachnoid : the intermediate layer
– Pia mater : the innermost layer
 Dura mater
• The dura mater is the dense outermost layer
of the meninges.
• Cerebral dura:
– Is a dense, collagenous CT composed of two
layers that are closely apposed in the adult.
– 1. Periosteal dura mater, the outer layer, is
composed of osteoprogenitor cells, fibroblast
and collagen fibers. Periosteal dura mater
serves periosteum of the inner surface of the
skull, and as such it is well vascularized.
 Dura mater

Strongest
2 layers :
- Periosteal
- Meningeal
Layers fuse
except at dural
sinuses
 Dura mater

Layers fused except at sinuses

Forms :
- Falx cerebri
- Falx cerebelli
- Tentorium cerebelli
continued

2. Meningeal dura :
– Inner layer of the dura is composed of fibroblast
and collagen fibers.
– This layer contains small blood vessels
– Internally meningeal dura covered by a layer of
cells called border cell layer, is composed of
fibroblast.
 Spinal dura mater
 Does not adhere to the walls of the vertebral canal.
 The epidural space : the space between the dura
and the bony walls of the vertebral canal, is filled with
epidural fat and a venous plexus.
 Arachnoid
• Is the intermediate layer of the meninges.
• Is avascular although blood vessels course
through it.
• It consist of fibroblast, collagen, and some
elastic fibers.
• Subdural space located between dura and
arachnoid, is a potential space because it
appears only after injury resulting subdural
hemorrhage
continued

• In certain regions the arachnoid extend

through the dura to form arachnoid
villi, which protrude into the dural
venous sinuses. The function of the
arachnoid villi is transporting CSF from
the subarachnoid spaces into the
venous system.
 Arachnoid mater

* Arachnoid Villi
Projections through dura
Pass into superior sagittal
sinus
Passage of CSF
* Web-like attachments to pia
 Arachnoid mater
• Spaces
– Subdural
• Between dura and arachnoid
• Little CSF
– Subarachnoid
• between arachnoid and pia
• CSF and blood vessels
 Pia mater
• Is the innermost highly vascular layer of
the meninges, is in close contact with the
brain, following closely all of its contours.
• The pia mater does not contact with the
neural tissue because a thin layer of
neuroglial processes is always interposed
between them.
continued

• Composition : a thin layer of flatened, modified

fibroblast.
• Blood vessels, abundant in this layer, are
surrounded by pia cells interspersed with
macrophage, mast cells, and lymphocytes.
• The pia mater is completely separated from the
underlying neural tissue by neuroglial cells.
• Blood vessels penetrate the neural tissue and are
covered by pia mater until they form the
continuous capillaries characteristic of the CNS.
• Pedicels of the astrocytes, cover capillaries
within the neural tissue.
 Pia mater

* Delicate
* Vascular
* Clings to surface of brain
 Blood-brain barrier
• Endothelial cells of CNS capillaries prevent
the free passage of selective blood-borne
substances into the neural tissue.
• This barrier is established by the endothelial
cells lining the continuous capillaries that
course through the CNS.
• These endothelial cells form zonula
occludentes with one another, retarding the
flow of material between cells.
continued

• These endothelial cells have relatively

few pinocytotic vesicles and vesicular
traffic is almost completely restricted to
receptor mediated transport.
 Choroid plexus
• Are formed by folds of pia mater
contain abundant of fenestrated
capillaries and invested by the
simple cuboidal (ependymal) lining
extend into the third, fourth, and lateral
ventricles of the brain.
• Are produced CSF.
 Cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid bathes, nourishes,
and protects the brain and spinal cord.
• Is produces by the choroid plexus.
CSF • Contains
– Sodium
– Chloride
– Magnesium
– Protein
– Glucose
– Oxygen
• Functions
– Cushion
– Waste removal
– Nourish brain
Production of CSF

• Formed in choroid
plexuses
– Rich capillary beds
in pia surrounded by
ependymal cells
• Filtrate of blood
plasma from
capillaries
Flow of CSF
• Choroid
plexus
• Ventricles
• Subarachnoid
space through
lateral and
median
apertures of
4th ventricle
• Blood of dural
sinuses via
arachnoid villi
 Cerebral cortex
• Is responsible for learning, memory,
sensory integration, information
analysis, and initiation of motor
responses.
• Is divided into six layers as follows:
1. Molecular layer : contains horizontal cells
and neuroglia
2. External granular layer : contains mostly
granule(stellate) cells and neuroglial cells
continued

3. External pyramidal layer : contains

pyramidal cells and neuroglial cells.
4. Internal granular layer contains small
granule cells (stelate cells), pyramidal
cells, and neuroglia.
5. Internal pyramidal layer contains larges
pyramidal cells and neuroglia
6. Multiform layer consist of various shapes
(Martinotti cells), and neuroglia.
 Cerebellar cortex
• Is responsible for balance, equilibrium,
muscle tone, and muscle coordination.
• Is divided into three layers:
1. Molecular layer, lies directly below the
pia mater.
2. Purkinje cell layer, contains the large,
flask-shaped Purkinje cells, which are
present only in the cerebellum.
3. Granular layer, consist of small cells and
glomeruli (cerebellar islands).
Neural Regeneration
 Nerve regeneration
• Nerve cells, unlike neuroglial cells, cannot
proliferate but can regenerate their axons,
located in the PNS.
• When a traumatic event destroy neurons,
they are not replaced because neurons
cannot proliferate ; therefore the damage
to the CNS is permanent.
continued

• However, if a peripheral nerve fiber is

injured or transected, the neurons
attempts to repair the damage,
regenerate the process, and restore
function by initiating a series of
structural and metabolic events,
collectively called the axon reaction.
 Axon reaction
• The reactions to the trauma are
characteristically localized in three
regions of the neurons:
1. Local changes: at the site of damage.
2. Anterograde changes: distal to the site of
damage
3. Retrograde changes: proximal to the site of
damage.
 Local reaction
• Local reaction to injury involves repair and
removal of debris by neuroglial cells.
• The severed ends of the axon retract away from
each other, and the cut membrane of each stump
fuses to cover the open end, preventing loss of
axoplasm.
• Macrophages and fibroblast infiltrate the
damaged area, secrete cytokines and growth
factors, and up-regulate the expression of
receptors.
• Macrophages invade the basal lamina and
assisted by Schwann cells, phagocytose the
debris.
Neural Regeneration

Human Anatomy, 3rd edition

Prentice Hall, © 2001
 Anterograde reaction
• In the anterograde reaction process,
that portion of the axon distal to an
injury undergoes degeneration and
is phagocytosed
• The axon undergoes anterograde
changes as follows:
1. The axon terminal becomes
hypertrophied and degeneretes within
a week. Schwann cells prolivered and
phagocitose the remnants of the axon
terminal, and the newly formed Schwann
cells occupy the synaptic space.
Continued
– 2. The distal portion of the axon undergoes
Wallerian degeneration, distal to the lesion,
the axon and the myelin disintegrate, Schwann
cells dedifferentiate and myelin synthesis is
discontinued. Macrophages and Schwann cells
phagocytose the disintegrated remnants
– 3. Schwann cells proliferate, forming a
column of Schwann cells ( Schwann tubes )
enclosed by the original basal lamina of the
endoneurium.
Neural Regeneration

Human Anatomy, 3rd edition

Prentice Hall, © 2001
Neural Regeneration

Human Anatomy, 3rd edition

Prentice Hall, © 2001
Neural Regeneration

Human Anatomy, 3rd edition

Prentice Hall, © 2001
Neural Regeneration

Human Anatomy, 3rd edition

Prentice Hall, © 2001
 Retrograde reaction and regeneration
• In these process, the proximal portion of the
injured axon undergoes degeneration followed by
sprouting of a new axon whose growth is
directed by Schwann cells.
• The portion of the axon proximal to the damage
undergoes the following changes :
– 1. the perikaryon of the damaged neuron becomes
hypertrophied, its Nissl bodies disperse, and its
nucleus is displaced ( these events called
chromatolysis). The soma is actively producing free
ribosomes and synthesizing proteins and various
macromolecule.
continued

– 2. Several “sprouts” of axon emerge

from the proximal axon stump, enter the
endoneurium, and are guided by the
Schwann cells to their target cell. For
regeneration to occur, the Schwann cells,
macrophages, and fibroblasts as well as
the basal lamina must be present. These
cells manufacture growth factors and
cytokines and up-regulate the expression
for the seceptors of these signaling
molecules.
continued

– 3. the sprout is guided by the Schwann

cells that redifferentiate and either begin
to manufacture myelin around the
growing axon or, in nonmyelinated axons,
form a Schwann cell sheath. The sprout
that reaches the target cell first form a
synapse, whereas the other sprout
degenerate.
 Regeneration in the CNS
• Injured cells within the CNS are
phagocytosed by microglia, and the space
liberated by the phagocytosis is occupied by
proliferation of glial cells, which form a
cell mass called glial scar.
 Regeneration
• Limited ability in PNS
• Severed peripheral nerve successfully
regenerates a fraction of the axons
– Function is permanently impaired
– Schwann cells participate
• Wallerian degeneration
– Loss of axon distal to damage
 Regeneration in CNS
• More complicated than PNS regeneration
• Far more limited
• More axons involved
• Astrocytes produce scar tissue preventing
axonal regrowth
• Astrocytes release chemicals blocking
regrowth
 Nerve ending – nerve terminal
• Two structural type :
– 1. Motor ending  terminal of axon )
• Transmit impulses from the CNS to skeletal &
smooth muscle & to glands ( secretory ending)
– 2. sensory ending = sensory receptor =
terminal of dendrites :
• Perceive various stimuli and transmit this input
to the CNS
continued

• These sensory receptor are classified

into three type depending on the source
of the stimulus, and are components of
the general or special somatic and
visceral afferent pathway :
– Exteroceptors
– Proprioceptors
– interoceptors
 Exteroceptors
• Location : near the body surface
• Specialized to perceive stimuli from the
external environment
• These receptors sensitive to :
– Temperature
– Touch
– Pressure and
– Pain
• Are component of the general somatic
afferent
continued

• Special somatic afferent :

– Specialized for light ( sense of vision) and
sound (sense of hearing)

• Special visceral afferent modality :

– Specialized for smell and taste
 Proprioceptors
• Are specialized receptor located in joint
capsules, tendon and intrafusal
fibers within muscle.
• These general somatic afferent
receptors transmit sensory input to the
CNS, which translated into information
that relates to an awareness of the body
in space and movement
continued

• Vestibular (balance) mechanism,

located within the inner ear, are
specialized for receiving stimuli related
to motion vectors within the head.
 Interoceptors
• Are specialized receptors that perceive
sensory information from within organs
of the body.
Specialized peripheral receptors
• Certain peripheral receptors,
specialized to receive particular stimuli,
include mechanoreceptors,
thermoreceptor, and nociceptors
• The dendritic ending located in various
regions of the body, including muscles,
tendons, skin, fascia and joint capsules
continued

• These receptors are classified into three

types :
– Mechanoreceptors, which respond to
touch
– Thermoreceptors,which respond to cold
and warmth
– Nociceptors, which respond to pain due
to mechanical stress, extremes
temperature differences and chemical
substance
 Mechanoreceptors
• Mechanoreceptors respond to
mechanical stimuli that may deform the
receptor or the tissue surrounding the
receptor.
• Stimuli that trigger the
mechanoreceptors are touch, stretch,
vibration and pressure
 Nonencapsulated
mechanoreceptors
• Are simple unmyelinated receptors
present in the skin, connective tissues
and surrounding hair follicle
– Peritricial nerve ending, located in the
epidermis of the skin, especially in the face
and cornea of the eye
– Merckel’s disks, specialized for perceiving
discriminatory touch, located in non hairy
skin and regions of the body more sensitive
to touch.
Encapsulated mechanoreceptors
• Encapsulated Mechanoreceptors exhibit characteristic
structure and are present in specific location
– 1. Meissner’ corpuscles :
• Specialist for tactile
• Location : dermal papillae of the non hair portin
of the hand, eyelids, lip, tongue, nipples, skin of
the foot and forearm.
• Each corpuscle is formed by three or four nerve
terminals and their associated Schwann cells,
all which are encapsulated by connective tissue.
continued
– 2. Pacinian corpuscles
• Location : in the dermis and hypodermis in the
digits of the hand, breast, connective tissue of
the joint, periosteum and the mesentery
• Spezialied to perceive pressure, touch and
fibration
• Morphology :
– ovoid & large receptor
– Single unmyelinated fiber as a core and its
Schwann cell
– Surrounded by approximately 60 layers of
modified fibroblast
– Each layer separated by a small fluid-filled
space
 Ruffini’s corpuscles
• Location : in the dermis of skin, nail
beds, periodontal ligament and joint
capsules
• Composition :
– branched nonmyelinated terminals
interspersed with collagen fibers
– Surrounded by four to five layers of
modified fibroblast
 Krause’s end bulb
• Morphology :
– Spheris
– Unmyelinated nerve ending
• Location : papilla dermis, joints,
conjunctiva, peritoneum, genital
regions, subendothelial c.t. of the oral
and nasal cavities
• Function : unknown, they were thought
to be receptors sensitive to cold
 Muscle spindles and Golgi tendon
organs
• Muscle spindles provide feedback
concerning the changes and the rate
alteration of the muscle length
• Golgi tendon organs monitor the tension
and the rate at which the tension is being
produced during movement
• Information from these two sensory structures
is processed at the unconscious level within
the spinal cord; the information also reaches
the cerebellum & cerebral cortex, so that
individual may sense muscle position.
 Thermoreceptor
• Which respons to temperature
differences of about 2° C, are three
types: warmth receptors, cold receptors
and temperature-sensitive nociceptors.
• Specific receptors have not been
identified for warmth
• Cold receptors are derived from naked
nerve ending in the epidermis
 Nociceptors
• Are receptors sensitive to pain caused by
mechanical stress, extreme of temperature, and
cytokines as bradykinin, serotonin and histamin.
• Are naked ending of myelinated nerve fibers
that branch freely in the dermis before entering
the dermis
• Divided into three groups :
– Those that respond to mechanical stress or damage
– Those that respond to extremes in heat or cold
– Those that respond to chemical compound such as
bradykinin, serotonin and histamin
Afferent Endings

 Free Nerve Endings

- Nerve endings without special structural
organization
- pain and temperature receptor

 Expanded Tip Endings

- Merkel’s Touch Corpuscle
Merkel cells in basal layer of epidermis
- Type I Hair cells of Vestibular Labyrinth
 Afferent Endings

 Encapsulated Endings
- Meissner’s Corpuscle
- Pacinian Corpuscle
(Corpuscle of Vater-Pacini)
- Genital Corpuscle
- Ruffini’s Ending
- End Bulb of Krause
- Golgi tendon organ: Proprioceptor
Receptor
Endings

Ÿ Free nerve
ending

Ÿ Expanded
tip ending
Ÿ Encapsulated
ending
Merkel’s
Touch Corpuscle

Ÿ expanded tip ending

Ÿ Merkel cell
- clear cell located in the
basal layer of epidermis
- membrane bound electron
dense granules resembles
synaptic vesicle
Meissner’s Corpuscle
Pacinian Corpuscle
 Efferent Endings
Somatic Efferent Endings
Neuromuscular Junction
(Myoneural Junction, Motor End
Plate)

Autonomic Efferent
Endings
Endings on smooth muscle
and blood vessels
Neuromuscular
Junction
(Myoneural Junction,
Motor End Plate)

NMJ
N
Autonomic Efferent Endings
Neuromuscular Spindle
• Both receptor and effector
• Structure
1. Capsule
2. Intrafusal Muscle Fibers
- Nuclear Bag Fiber
- Nuclear Chain Fiber
3. Receptor and Effector Nerve
Endings
- Afferent Ending
- Efferent Ending
NB: nuclear bag fiber IF: intrafusal muscle fiber
EF: extrafusal muscle
CA: capsule
fiber