Error - difference between the actual

magnitude of a physical quantity and the

value obtained in measurement.

(Ralat ialah beza antara magnitud yang

sebenar bagi satu kuantiti fizik dan nilai
yang didapati dalam pengukuran)
a) Random Error (e.g Parallax errors)

- can be positive or negative in a set of

reading
- random error will cause each reading
to be higher or lower than the actual
magnitude
- Parallax error occurs when readings
taken from an unsuitable position
- Random error can be reduced by taking
several readings
 Ralat rawak adalah ralat yang disebabkan
oleh ketidakbolehan pemerhati untuk
membuat pengukuran yang sama dalam cara
yang sama dengan tepat untuk mendapatkan
nombor yang sama
 Contoh :
-salah membilang ayunan bandul
-salah membaca skala
-salah mengendalikan alat
 Ralat bersistem ialah ralat yang disebabkan
oleh keadaan alat atau keadaan persekitaran

 Contoh ralat sistem :

a) penentukuran tidak tepat (inaccurate
calibration)
b) ralat sifar (zero error)- reading shown on
the instrument is not zero
-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS-
A) Ruler
 A ruler is used to measure lengths from a
few cm up to 1 m. A metre rule has an
accuracy of 0.1 cm (i.e. 1 mm).
 Ruler

- Precautions to be taken when using a ruler:

(a) Ensure that the object is in contact with the ruler

to avoid inaccurate readings.
(b) Avoid parallax errors.
(c) Avoid zero and end errors.
 The ends of a ruler, which may be worn out, are a
source of errors in measurement. Thus it is
advisable to use the division mark `1' of the scale
as the zero point when taking a measurement.
 skala utama – 0.1cm ( 1cm dibahagikan
kepada 10 bahagian)

 Skala vernier – 0.09cm ( 0.9cm dibahagikan

kepada 10 bahagian)

 Tanda sifar dalam skala vernier berfungsi

sebagai penunjuk untuk skala utama.
Vernier Caliper
(a) Positive zero error / ralat sifar positif
 Zero error = +0.04 cm.

  Ralat sifar negatif

0.02cm

0.70 cm

0.72 cm
Micrometer Screw gauge is used to measure :

 Objectsthat are small in size

 Diameter of wire
 Diameter of small sphere
The micrometer scale comprises a main scale
marked on the sleeve and a scale marked on the
thimble called the thimble scale.
When taking a reading, the thimble is
turned until the object is gripped very
gently between the anvil and the spindle.
 Apabila membuat pengukuran, racet diputar
untuk menggerakkan rahang ke depan,
sehingga ia menyentuh objek yang diukur
dan bunyi “tik” didengar.

 Dengan cara itu, tiada tekanan berlebihan

dikenakan pada objek yang diukur.
Readings on the micrometer are taken as follows.
- The reading of the micrometer screw gauge is
the sun of the main scale reading and the
thimble scale reading which is:

 2.0 + 0.22 =2.22 mm

Positive and Negative zero error

the horizontal reference line on the main

scale is in line with the 3rd division mark,
below the `0' mark of the thimble scale.

Zero error = -0.03 mm

 Write down the readings shown by the
following (VERNIER CALLIPERS)

7 8

0 5 10
4 5
A B

P Q
0 5 10

6 7

0 5 10
The investigative procedure begins with the
following steps:

a) Making observation
- gather all the information about object or
phenomenon

b) Making an inference

- To interpret or explain what is being observed. It is

also an early conclusion based on observation.
c) Determining the variables and Controlling the
variable

 A variable is a physical quantity which

varies/changes during the course of a scientific
investigation.
There are 3 different types of variables, namely:

(a) Manipulated variable

• It is a physical quantity which is fixed in an
experiment.
(b) Responding variable
• It is a physical quantity which depends on the
independent variable.
(c) Constant variable
• It is a physical quantity which is fixed while an
experiment is being carried out.
d) Making a hypothesis

 It is a clarification/explanation regarding
the relationship between the manipulated
variable and the responding variable
when all other variables are kept
constant.

 A hypothesis must be proven correct

after an experiment is carried out.
e) Conducting experiments
 Covers the choice and arrangement of
the apparatus together with the work
procedure being followed/ conducted.
Situation :

A few children are playing on a

different length of swing in a
playground. It is found that the time
of oscillation for each swing is
different