Machining Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip » As chip is removed, new surface is exposed oa tot comma (2) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).Why Machining is Important » Variety of work materials can be machined Most frequently used to cut metals » Variety of part shapes and special geometric features possible, such as: Screw threads Accurate round holes Very straight edges and surfaces » Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish |Disadvantages with Machining » Wasteful of material Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least in the unit operation » Time consuming A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part than alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or forming |Machining in Manufacturing Sequence » Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing Other processes create the general shape of the starting workpart Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and special geometric details that other processes cannot create |Speed and Feed » Speed is the relative movement between tool and wip, which produces acut » Feed is the relative movement between tool and wip, which spreads the cut |Cutting Tools ra Ness (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting edges.Roughing vs. Finishing In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken on the part, followed by one or two finishing cuts » Roughing - removes large amounts of material from starting workpart » Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some material for finish cutting High feeds and depths, low speeds hing - completes part geometry Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds | FiDetermining Shear Plane Angle » Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear plane angle ¢ can be determined as: reosa 1-rsing tang= where r= chip ratio, and a= rake angle |Shear Strain in Chip Formation Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain jangle used to derive strain equation.Forces Acting on Chip » Friction force F and Normal force to friction N » Shear force F, and Normal force to shear F, ~ Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting aResultant Forces » Vector addition of Fand N= resultant R » Vector addition of F, and F,= resultant R’ » Forces acting on the chip must be in balan R’ must be equal in magnitude to R R'must be opposite in direction to R » R’must be collinear with RCutting Force and Thrust Force » F,N,F, and F, cannot be directly measured » Forces acting on the tool that can be measured: Cutting force F and Thrust force F, Figure 21.10 Forces in metal cutting: (b) forces acting on the tool that can be measured ° ny ont one Pr ecaeteCoefficient of Friction Coefficient of friction between tool and chip: Friction angle related to coetficient of friction as follows: ye=tan BF=F.sin +F, cos N=F.cosa-F, sinF,= F,cos@-F,sing F,=Eysing + F, cosF,= F,cos@-F,sing F,=Eysing + F, cosForces in Metal Cutting » Thus equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be measured to the forces that can be measured: F =F, sina +F,cosa N= F, cose: - F, sina: F,=F, cosg-F, sing F, =F, sing + F, cos¢ » Based on these calculated force, shear stress and coefficient of friction can be determined |Significance of Cutting forces In the set of following force balance equation: FHF sing+¥,cos@ F= friction fo mal to ehip force = thrust force to shear plane force Ast wisn @Shear Stress Shear stress acting along the shear plane: F. s-& A where A, = area of the shear plane Shear stress = shear strength of work material during culting |Cutting forces given shear strength Letting S = shear strength, we can derive the following equations for the cutting and thrust forees*: F,=SA, F,=F,cos (B — @)/[eos (@ + B - @)] F,= F,sin ( B — @)/[cos (@ + B - a] Pr he other forces can be determined from the equations on the previousMachining example In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before cut is t, = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is t, = 0.045 in. The cutting and thrust forces are measured at F, = 350 Ib and F, =285 Ib while at a cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear stress, and cutting horsepower Solution (shear strain): Determine r = 0,02/0,043 = 0.444 Determine shear plane angle from tan @ tan = 0.444 cos 10 /[1 - 0.444 sin 10] => =28.4° Now calculate shear strain from y=tan(g - af) + cot @ cos a: /I—r sin | = tan(25.4- 10) + cot 25.4 = 2.386 infin answer!Machining example (cont.) In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before cut is t, = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is t, = 0.045 in. The cutting and thrust forces are measured at F, = 350 Ib and F, =285 Ib while at a cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear stress, and cutting horsepower. Solution (shear stress): Determine shear force from F, =F,cos - F, sin F, = 350 cos 25.4 - 285 sin 25.4 = 194 Ib Determine shear plane area from A,=t, wisin A,= (0.02) (0.125)/sin 25.4= 0.00583 in?Machining example (cont.) In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before cut is and chip thickness after cut is t, = 0.045 in. The cutting and thrust forces are measured at F, = 350 Ib and F,=285 1b while at a cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear stress, and cutting horsepower. Solution (cutting horsepower): Determine cutting hp from hp, = F,v/33,000 hp, = (350) (200)/33,000 =2.12 hp answer!Formula Sheet Shear Plane Anglo @ =tan’{(reo8 a it~ rin ol) ‘Shear Stain 7=lan(d- 0) +co!0 Frees in Guting F =fesna rFicose N =Fecosa-Ft sine Fo= Fo cosd-Ft sing Fn =Fesino + Ft cose Foreos Fe and Ft in terme of Fa: F,~F.eos (B~avleos( + B- a) F =Fsin( B-ayoos(9+B- 9] Merchant Reb: nasa 2 ‘Shas Stes Cuting Poner =F, (53.000 hp af and, in Ib) F / 10001 (Vinws and, ia)Tipwoducton “Dates paused ce Yaa pone neg are uaa namo ‘Rocca tials Gt pts oo skeen afte ait bears {Sescarlen isang aren sen enn ms oo SES a rate a ata Seas Spoenar a na Elster nena out oy sanestnrunse Se et eo mee omen tet ‘air rao ta Tico Late re ‘Teenie ane Bes Sinise eeernainea eatin,+ Pare2s Petucnas a Sere “Sina Saace gre Posen Pat Su a Oe igee 2 Taper Tena ewe 2 Paring Ue Cates Fira. Ras Ternng Atachst ‘gue aleg on atane a={3.Cutng Toot Drthlerdsatmc um nung petnarg en tine stone Rrbiecinasraivata me ctneiemiiemetaney sitet, (Sheversetmraran mpm tor mana oon Seas rare omar= RoR a Reventon cai gh an mot{Teel Motors n Cannan Use WohCeien sta gE senses 88) Seems Gib Fareaionk Cip BeneDiscomtinuous Chip Soecereenee ‘continucus Chip with Buitup Edge midsicniieweconce minting tees be Ropannan nin ngamerah dingy» ica atone ores spect ce ‘we 7 Commune er 8 Darwtnut Ove (nye © cen ip th ‘tn aoe‘teclenhv igansstiom sone Susser naa brgrng agasn on ete es Sew ‘inset ainda 10 Gag Speed aed ‘prance dei sen tf Savin isceeeemareeae con pe Sepeenauetauenirivimnnememermae SS Fee Spor erly he ttace nah toqoned ore ecto seh havi tnd owe SE onamar sate ou nacre i ate stats et tre nee Sctayes Stier msaeea eases pate arene ee Ininant ctw acme a Fecritearinetngre me sn goatteretentesninen len Coking Pid taba Besrent ceepengin ene ere ete trope ate eer hein poses a rete eae mets armband "inc agarmmnece c “ey ps at a a cep eyPeererchion ernie rap ‘minaes monster san jodrae ooe avin oe waa Fore Stn‘pcan st toa ey tg ue neMES72 Analysis of Manufacturing ProcessesCONTENTS Introduction Tool Life and Machinability Tool Damage Causes of tool damage Factors Affecting Tool Life in Machining ProcessesINTRODUCTION * Cutting tool life is important consideration in metal cutting processes * In machining operations, cutting conditions such as tool angles, cutting speeds and feed rates are usually selected to give an economical tool life. * Conditions giving a short tool life are uneconomical because tool grinding and tool replacement costs are high * Factors affecting tool life should be carefully monitored to minimize their consequences.Tool Life and Machinability * Atool that doesn't perform the desired function can be declared as failed, or reached the end of its usofu! life. * At this point of time, the tool is not necessarily unable to out the workpiece but is merely unsatisfactory (may not give the desired surface finish or dimensional tolerances) for the purpose required * The tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used.Tool Damage * Tool damage can be classified into two groups, weat and fracture by means ofits scale and how it progresses. * Wear is loss of material on an asperity or micro-contact, ot smaller scale, down to ‘molecular or atomic romaval mochanisme, f usually progresses continuously. * Thore are two main typos of tool wear + Fank wear + Crater wear * Fracture, on the other hand, is damage ala larger scale than wear and it occurs ‘suddenlyTool Damage * Tool damage can be classified into two groups, weat and fracture by means ofits scale and how it progresses. * Wear is loss of material on an asperity or micro-contact, ot smaller scale, down to ‘molecular or atomic romaval mochanisme, f usually progresses continuously. * Thore are two main typos of tool wear + Fank wear + Crater wear * Fracture, on the other hand, is damage ala larger scale than wear and it occurs ‘suddenlyTool damage. rani wear ve cuting ame Break-in period 1 Failure + Steady-state wear region ——tl= region Accelerating ‘Tool flank wear Rapid initial wear Cutting timeCauses of tool damage Mechanical Damage Thermal Damage | Ls |auses of tool damage Teeny tue oy Mechanical Damage a a5 eS aN Fracture Fatigue xo CSCauses of tool damage Me) Factors Metre Tol Lie nachna recessesCauses of tool damage Thermal Damage hardness, HRA 100 300 ‘500 700 cutting temperature, “CCauses of tool damage ‘Thermal damage Plastic deformation Thermal diffusion Chemical reaction Removal rate Cuating temperatureFter act Teli Inhacnines reconeoe £44Rake anal Cutting Toot sees ‘Geometry Rake angles are three types, positive, zero and negative. For ductile materials, the rake inclination is a positive angle Since their shearing is low. For brittle materials, the rake inclin The advantages of increasing rake angle * Reduces the horsepower consumption. * The cutting force and tool-chip contact tamperature change in approximately the same way. ‘The disadvantages of increasing rake angle * The strength of the cutting wedge decreases when the rake angle increases. * The region of the maximum contact temperature at the tool-chip interface shifts toward the cutting edge. is a neg angle.Flank angle Cutting Toot ‘Geometry The flank angle affects the performance of the cutting tool mainly by decreasing the rubbing between the too! surface and workpiece surface. With increasing the flank angle the following advantages are obtained: * Cutting edge radius decreases which leads to decrease in the frictional and deformation components af the flank force ‘+ The strength of the region adjacent to the cutting edge decreases. * Heat dissipates through the tool decreases.Nose Radius ‘Cutting Toot ‘Geometry Nose radius is very critical part of the cutting edge. If the radius is made of sharp angle, the produced finished surtace will be rough and tool life will be short. Alarge nose radius benefits ‘ * Better surface finish. 4 * Faster feed rate ‘ + Stongertea. P * Allow faster cutting speed However, large radii have negative sequences such as tool chatter.Cutting Too! Material Factors affecting selection © The cutting operation involved Workpiece material Production requirements Surface finish and acouracy requirements. cutting tool material Machine to be usedResistance to heat cutting Toot {hot hardness) we Rosistance to mechanical impact thermal shock. Resistance to wear ina cutting tool (hardness) Resistance to fracture (toughness) |_(Chemical stability to the workpiece materialCutting Too! Material FT Joemons coma [emersonCutting Tool ‘Material Today, 50% of HSS, 85% of carbide and 40% of super-hard tools used in industry are coated Factors tect Tol Life nachna PrecssesPressure resistance. Cutting Toot ‘characteristics Bonding strength. Edge strength Inner bonding strenath High temperature strength ‘Small propensity to diffusion and ‘adhesion (Chemically stable). Cutting Too! Characteristics To stand against high stress Abrasion resistance Reproducible wear behaviorcutting Conditions Depth of cut Feed rate Cutting SpeedCutting Conditions Cutting speed has the greatest influence on tool wear and tool life. Most materials can be machined over a wide range of speeds. When a shorter tool lifeis allowable the speed can be increased Relationship between tool life and cutting speed is expressed by Taylor equation for tool life VI"=¢nvmin = = é 1 505 ioo 3001060 (Cutting speed (imi) ing ConditionsFeed rate changes have a less effect on tool life than cutting speed does. Relationship between tool life and cutting conditions is expressed by modified Taylor equation VINPSa? = k, Limitations to maximizing feed rate * Horsepower available on the machine tool. * Chip groove geometry. + Surface finish required + Part configuration. Cutting ConditionsCutting Conditions 70 30 Tool life (min) 20 10 iy 20 25 20 Feed rate (mm/min)Cutting Conditions Depth of cut has least effect upon tool life, so the heaviest (10 times the feed rate) possible depth of cut should always be used. Depth of cutis limited by ‘Amount of metal to be machined from the workpiece, Power available on machine tool, Rigidity ofthe work piece and cutting tool Rigidity of tho sotup. Workpiece configuration Ingart size & thicknosscutting Fluid ‘Nain Cutting Fluid Functions —_ Removing chips away from the ‘cutting zoneReduction of cutting forces! ‘energy consumptions, Improvement of surface finish ‘and dimensional accuracy. Extord too! Ii Facitate chip removal. Gorrasion prevention on workpiece and machines. Other functions of cutting fluids Lowering workpiece temperature. Lubrication of machine toa! sloing guidesFactors tect Tol Life nachna PrecssesCutting Fluids Selection ‘Type of cutting tool material. Factors tect Tol Life nachna Precssescutting Biodegradabilty Lite cycle assessment Beaccumulabilly Environmental and biomagnifications [Energy saving and] {ual economy Renowabilly Cutting Fluid Effects _[ Resairatony ‘robloms. Health h Dermatological problems Fito Act Tol Lf In nichiing econEnvironmental machining SSS | Minimum Vegetable Dry cutting quantity based cutting lubricant fluids cutting FluidContent Common features of machining processes, geometry of single point tool and tool signature, concept of speed, feed and depth of cut applicable to various machining processes.Mechanics of Metal Cutting Tool must be sharp (what do you mean by sharp?) # Relative velocity & Interference Tool material shall be harder than the work piece material Physical Phenomenon in Machining # Plastic flow At extreme condition + Fracture © Sticking friction at tip 4 Friction * Deformation at high strain a Heat oo. and strain rate + Molecular diffusion * Nascent surface exposed & Chatter after deformation is very activeObjectives During Machining 4 High Material Removal Rate (MRR) 4 Good accuracy and Surface finish 4 Long tool life CostProcessing Parameters in Machining Spindle speed Feed rate Machine Related Cutter Related Cutting fluid type and Material application method Geometry Depth and Width of cut Mounting Spindle speed Feed rate Workpiece Related Others Material (composition, homogeneity) Cutting fluid type and application Geometry (bar, block, casting etc.) method Depth of cut Depth and Width of cut Spindle speed Feed rateEffects of Processing Parameters “4 Cutting forces and |] 4 Work hardening a Torques and power! . Thermal softening 4 Tool temperature # Hot spots on the 4 Frictional effects . machined surface on tool face 4 Deflection and 4 Built up edge diameter variations 4 Formation 4 Chatter, noise and ||* Tool life 4 Vibrations + Surface finishTheories of Chip Formation 4 Chip formation studies helps in understanding mechanics of metal cutting or physics of machining 4 They lead to equations that describe the interdependence of the process parameters such as depth of cut, relative velocity, tool geometry etc. These relations help us in selecting optimal process parameters.Theories of Chip Formation — Theory of Tear A crack propagates ahead of the tool tip causing. tearing similar to splitting wood [Reuleaux in 1900] Motion of a> Crack formed ahead of toolTheories of Chip Formation — Theory of Tear Against the traditional wisdom, the tool was observed to wear, not at the tip, but a little distance away from it. Therefore, this theory was subscribed by many researchers for a long time.Theories of Chip Formation — Theory of Tear Further studies attributed the wear away from the tip to the following: + Chip velocity w.r.t. the tool is zero at the tip. % The tip is protected by BUE. 4&4 Temp is also high a little away from the tip due to the frictional heat. Subsequent studies proved the chip formation as shear and not tear. Thus the theory of tear was rejected.Theories of Chip Formation — Theory of Compression 4 The tool compresses the material during machining. 4 This was based on the observation that the chip length was shorter than the uncut chip length. 4 Later it was established that this shortage in length corresponds to the increase chip thickness. 4 Thus this theory too was wrongTheories of Chip Formation — Theory of Shear The excessive compressive stress causes shear of the chip at an angle to the cutting direction [Mallock in 1881]. Friction between / chip and tool { \__— Formation of chip by continuous shearing Motion of workpieceDifficulties in Machining Mechanics studies 4 Several physical phenomenon such as plastic flow, fracture, friction, heat, molecular diffusion and chatter are involved. Some of them occur in extréme conditions 4 Friction — sticking; deformation — high strain and strain rate; nascent surface exposed after deformation is very active causing diffusion 4 The cutting zone is covered by chips and coolant. Typical machining is oblique, i.e., forces, torques and deflections exist in all 3 directions.Difficulties in Machining Mechanics studies 4 The typical machining operations are too short and the stock (depth and width of cut) keeps changing 4 Furthermore, velocity also may change along the cutting edge as well as over time. These changes further compound the difficulties to observe the process carefully. 4 Orthogonal cutting experiments were developed to overcome these difficulties.Characteristics of Orthogonal Cutting a 4 Awedge shaped tool is used Cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cut. In other words, cutting edge angle *, =90° and cutting edge inclination angle %=0° Uncut chip thickness 4, is constant along the cutting edge and w.rt. time. Cutting edge is longer than the width of the blank and it extends on its both sides. Cutting velocity v is constant along the cutting edge and w.rt. timeMechanics of Metal Cutting The type of chip produced depends upon workpiece material, tool geometry, and operating conditions. & Discontinuous chips Individual segments Fracture of the metal Brittle materials (cast irons) No plastic deformation 4 Continuous chips Machining ductile materials like steel and Al Continuous deformation without fracture Chip breakers are required Too! wear increases with sliding SeeMechanics of Metal Cutting 4 Compressive deformation will cause it to be thicker and shorter than the layer of workpiece material removed 4 The work required to deform this material usually accounts for the largest portion of forces and power involved in a metal removal operation 4 The ratio of chip thickness, to the un-deformed chip thickness (effective feed rate) is called the chip thickness ratio. The lower the chip thickness ratio, the lower the force and heat, and the higher the efficiency of the operation casio) Where 1, =undelormed chip thickness sine 2, chip thickness after cutting‘Study of Single Point and Mutt Point Cuting Too! Dasa Pere of got cg te = pee cteneg oe 5 esc rome spl ctg bot Dr argesasostas ni sgepont tig ad 5 Ingorarce eet anges csi potcuteg tn eters PROPERTIES OF GOOD CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL: en) ecu ol raralatous nme te wry opener 1. Mah hens aelaed npr oth cae wen 2. Mh dora ossince ert he ye fom doing ‘elapse he steer pedis ip maton. 3. an tharalconeuy foie cura tBmpsUNS Waa Hee he 4 Hn sare magne reas ee enon a ee as espa Inn caro, 6. Hg tp esse, epic br ms ussin erp cute 1. Won armalehockreaoresY9 pevet 9 lage rset Adee icy ih apt oe wo lea rete! allan eee tga, ce mat“TyPES OF CUTTING TOOLS: 2k sialePoieCutrg Tock “Tey are hang wedgetika acon, Tey find wide appeatons on labs and tng mochines sma apo cating Tot They are made by arranging two oF mere singe pint cating tis together as aunt. The miling cuter and breaching tel are goed cnarrles ofthis ype. ELEMENTS OF A SINGLE PONT CUTTING TOOL: 2. eat Ege Te se on he ce fh ol wh eat the 4 Fk Te sao blow acne clin row a ar | nes he pt he he acting ae and nd etn age1. ice cg ap age Be Sderot ae 1. En ato Ean Ale Bok Raw aie Serr ope e bntrote ane | So Cning Edge Age (6 he ae tebe he estos ioe areca tak ‘no sorlenonary ange of So Citing Eépo Argo 6 cae: arses age! 4 nd Catig Edge Angle 0) in te ale teen nde age 1 Side Rate Ange AE KS ary] Eatin pn ot soe rk Immo bowho sd cuig edo an etn paseo ets4 nd Rit Ange Bi ish sg Bete pron of heer ak ‘neil bon ee ung edge an 8 pend bee ot 1 Back Rake Angle (a) gh Une feo lan ne one This le pone tne se tig ge aloes oamvard ne pottovrce shana negate le pe a 8 lg eo 1 soe make Ane (a it age Ben te eo te el tne partial and matron panda se ant i tg ee, The aie re negate spe stewart te cuting eg on poste the stpeis ay fom te alr eae Thaange geese spe dtc torte enTOPICS Introduction Mechanics of chip formation ‘Types of chips produced in meta cutting Mechanics of oblique cutting Cutting forces and power ‘Temperature in cutting Tool life : Wear and failure Surface finish and integrity MachinabilityFundamentals of cuttingion Cutting process : Remove material from the surface of the work piece by producing chips Introdu Turning operation : the work piece is rotated an a cutting tool removes a layer of material as it moves to the left Cutting off: Cutting tool moves radially inwards and separated the right piece from the back of the blank. Slab-milling rotating cutting tool removes material from the surface of the work piece layer of End-milling rotating cutter travels along a certain depth in the work piece and produces a cavityFactors influencing cutting proc Parameter Tafluence and interrlationship CCamting speed depth of Forces powerkemperature rise tool lifesype of chips.surface cet feel c ting fluids finish ‘Tool angles As above influence on chip Flow directonesistance 10 wot chipping. ea Good surface finish Sadly cuning foreesundesvable in ‘automated machinery Poor surface finishthin stable eige ean product too surface. Desirable for case of chip disposaliflutusting cutting foweseam affect surface finish and cause vibration and chatter, Influences surfice finish dimensional accuracy emperatare se. lowes and power. ‘Tool wear Influcaces surface finish dimensional accuracy. temperate ise owes and power. Machinabilty Related to too! Life surface Finish forces and power Builtup-edge chip isc ntinuows chip ‘Temperature nse,