DEFENCE ENGINEERING COLLEGE

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
MV2012
REVIEW OF BASIC
CONCEPTS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
 Definition and meanings
Thermodynamics is a branch of science which
deals with energy.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physical
science that deals with the various phenomena of
energy and related properties of matter, especially
of the laws of transformations of heat into other
forms of energy and vice-versa.
The name thermodynamics stems from the
Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power).
For analyzing any system there are basically two
approaches available in engineering thermodynamics
Macroscopic approach is the one in which
complete system as a whole is considered and
studied without caring for what is there constituting
the system at microscopic level. (also known as
Classical thermodynamics)
Microscopic approach is one having fragmented
the system under consideration up to microscopic
level and analyzing the different constituent
subsystems or Microsystems. (also known as
Statistical thermodynamics)
 system is defined as the quantity of matter or region
in space upon which the attention is concentrated for
the sake of analysis.
 Surroundings may be defined as every thing
surrounding the system
 Boundary is defined as real or imaginary layer that
separates the system from its surroundings
 Based on the energy and mass interactions of the
systems with surroundings/other systems across the
boundary the system can be further be classified as the
open, close, and isolated system.
Open system is the one in which energy and
mass interactions take place at the system
boundary, for example automobile engine.
Closed system is the one in which only energy
interactions take place at its boundary, for
example boiling water in a closed pan.
Isolated system is the one in which neither
mass interaction nor energy interaction take
place across the system boundary, for example
Thermos Flask
 Thermal energy reservoir is a body that can
supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature.
 Heat engines are a special devices that converts
heat to work.
 Thermal efficiency is Net work output / Total heat
input
 Reversible process is defined as a process that can
be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings. That is, both the system and the
surroundings are returned to their initial states at
the end of the reverse process.
 Irreversible process is a process which is not
reversible
Application of thermodynamics
Application of thermodynamics
Application of thermodynamics
Application of thermodynamics
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

 Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if the

bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body C separately then the two bodies A
and B shall also be in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
 By replacing the third body C with a
thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have
the same temperature reading even if they are
not in contact.
 First Law of thermodynamics
 The first law of thermodynamics is essentially an
expression of the conservation of energy principle
 It states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process, it can only change forms.
 Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in
the form of heat or work.
 If the energy transfer across the boundaries of a closed
system is due to a temperature difference, it is heat;
otherwise, it is work.
 Heat is transferred in three ways: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Total Energy of a System
 It’s the Sum of all forms of energy (i.e., thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electrical, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear)
that can exist in a system
 For systems we typically deal with in this course, sum of
internal, kinetic, and potential energies

E = U + KE + PE

E = Total energy of system

U = internal energy
KE = kinetic energy = mV2/2
PE = potential energy = mgz
Non flow Energy Equation

The change in the total energy of a system

during a process is the sum of the changes in
its internal, kinetic, and potential energies and
can be expressed as
∆E=∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE
For stationary systems, the changes in kinetic
and potential energies are zero (that is, ∆KE=
∆PE = 0)
Thus, ∆E=∆U
 Since internal energy is a property, then
change in internal energy from state 1 to
state 2 can be written U2 – U1.
 And energy can cross the boundaries of a
closed system in the form of heat or work
Hence, U2 – U1 = Q + W
Or for unit mass
u2-u1 =Q + W
This equation is known as the non-flow
energy equation.
For a small amount of heat supplied dQ,
a small amount of work done on the
fluid dW, and a small change in specific
internal energy du, then
du = dQ + dW
 Steady flow energy equation
 Steady flow refers to the flow in which its properties
at any point remain constant with respect to time.
 In the analysis of systems that involve fluid flow, we
use combined property enthalpy h. That is, h = u +
Pv where the term Pv represents the flow energy of
the fluid (also called the flow work), which is the
energy needed to push a fluid and to maintain flow.
In the energy analysis of flowing fluids, it is
convenient to treat the flow energy as part of the
energy of the fluid and to represent the microscopic
energy of a fluid stream by enthalpy h.
 Since there is steady flow of fluid into and out of the
system, and there are steady flows of heat and work,
then the energy entering must exactly equal the
energy leaving.

And inserting h

These is known as the steady-flow energy

equation.
Second law of Thermodynamics
 There are two classical statements of the second law, the
Kelvin–Planck statement which is related to heat engines and
the Clausius statement which is related to refrigerators or
heat pumps.

Kelvin-Planck statement
 It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.
 The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of
thermodynamics states that no heat engine can produce a net
amount of work while exchanging heat with a single reservoir
only. In other words, the maximum possible efficiency is less
than 100 percent.
 For heat engine to operate, the working fluid has to
exchange heat with heat sink as well as heat source.
Clausius Statement
 It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect other
than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
 The Clausius statement does not imply that a
cyclic device that transfers heat from a cold
medium to a warmer one is impossible to
construct. It simply states that a refrigerator
cannot operate unless its compressor is driven by
an external power source, such as an electric
motor
THE CARNOT CYCLE
 Work is done by the working fluid during one part of the cycle
and on the working fluid during another part. And The
difference between these two is the net work delivered by the
heat engine.
 The efficiency of a heat-engine cycle greatly depends on how
the individual processes that make up the cycle are executed.
 The net work, thus the cycle efficiency, can be maximized by
using processes that require the least amount of work and
deliver the most, that is, by using reversible processes.
 Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because the
irreversibility associated with each process cannot be
eliminated. However, reversible cycles provide upper limits on
the performance of real cycles.
 Probably the best known reversible cycle is the
Carnot cycle
 It’s composed of four reversible processes, two
isothermal and two adiabatic. And it can be executed
either in a closed or a steady-flow system.
 Consider a closed system that consists of a gas
contained in an adiabatic piston–cylinder device.
 The insulation of the cylinder head is such that it may
be removed to bring the cylinder into contact with
reservoirs to provide heat transfer.
 The four reversible processes that make up the
Carnot cycle are as follows:
Reversible Isothermal Expansion
(process 1-2, TH constant)
 Initially (state 1), the temperature of the gas is TH and
the cylinder head is in close contact with a source at
temperature TH so that As the gas expands & the gas
temperature tends to decrease some heat is transferred
from the reservoir into the gas. Thus, the gas
temperature is kept constant at TH
 The gas is allowed to expand slowly, doing work on the
surroundings until the piston reaches position 2.
 The amount of total heat transferred to the gas during
this process is QH.
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
(process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
 At state 2, the reservoir that was in contact with
the cylinder head is removed and replaced by
insulation so that the system becomes adiabatic.
 The gas continues to expand slowly, doing work
on the surroundings until its temperature drops
from TH to TL (state 3).
 The piston is assumed to be frictionless and the
process to be quasiequilibrium, so the process is
reversible as well as adiabatic.
Reversible Isothermal Compression
(process 3-4, TL constant).
 At state 3, the insulation at the cylinder head is
removed, and the cylinder is brought into contact
with a sink at temperature TL.
 The piston is pushed inward by an external force,
doing work on the gas.
 As the gas is compressed, it’s temperature tends
to rise but heat is transferred from the gas to the
sink, causing the gas temperature to drop to TL.
Thus, the gas temperature remains constant at TL.
 It continues until the piston reaches state 4. The
amount of heat rejected from the gas during this
process is QL.
Reversible Adiabatic Compression
(process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH)
State 4 is such that when the low-temperature
reservoir is removed, the insulation is put
back on the cylinder head, and the gas is
compressed in a reversible manner, the gas
returns to its initial state (state1).
 The temperature rises from TL to TH during
this reversible adiabatic compression process,
which completes the cycle.
P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle
Third law of thermodynamics
 Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular
disorder, or molecular randomness.
 As a system becomes more disordered, the positions
of the molecules become less predictable and the
entropy increases.
 In the solid phase, the molecules of a substance
continually oscillate about their equilibrium
positions, but they cannot move relative to each
other, and their position at any instant can be
predicted with good certainty.
 In the gas phase, however, the molecules move
about at random, collide with each other, and
change direction, making it extremely difficult to
predict accurately the microscopic state of a system
at any instant.
 Therefore, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance
at absolute zero temperature is zero since there is no
uncertainty about the state of the molecules at that
instant.
 This statement is known as the Third law of
Thermodynamics.
 The entropy determined relative to this point is
called absolute entropy.
 Notice that the entropy of a substance that is not
pure crystalline (such as a solid solution) is not zero
at absolute zero temperature.
 Another important inequality that has major
consequences in thermodynamics is the Clausius
inequality.
 That is, the cyclic integral of dQ/T is always less than
or equal to zero.
 This inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or
irreversible.
 the equality in the Clausius inequality holds for totally
or just internally reversible cycles and the inequality
for the irreversible ones.

 Entropy is an extensive property of a system and

sometimes is referred to as total entropy.
 Entropy per unit mass, designated s, is an intensive
property and has the unit kJ/kg · K.
 Total entropy (designated by S) is defined as:

 The entropy change of a system during a process can

be determined by integrating the above equation
between the initial and the final states