The Atmosphere

 Atmosphere is the layer of the air

surrounding the earth.
 The atmosphere is a critical system
that helps to regulate Earth's climate
and distribute heat around the globe.
Atmospheric Composition
The gases that makeup the
Atmosphere
 Layers of the Atmosphere
• Troposphere
- This is where we live
- 6-20 km in height
- Weather occurs
- Temp decreases with height

• Stratosphere
Still would feel cold
- Temp increases with height
- Ozone (03) layer
- Absorbs most of the
damaging ultraviolet sunlight (UV-B)
-from the tropopause up to 31
miles abov

• Mesosphere
- From ~30 to 53 miles up
- Temp decreases
- Majority of meteors burn up
Ozone Layer
• Thermosphere
- Upper atmosphere 53 to
~430 miles up
- Very few molecules
 The Troposphere
 Temperature highest near the
ground, and falls all the way up to
about 30,000 ft
 This means the possibility of
convection, and therefore weather,
as clouds form from rising air which
cools by pressure drop, and clouds
dissipate as air falls and heats.
 The Stratosphere
 Heated mostly by absorbing UV light from the sun by O3
(ozone), breaking it apart into O2 + atomic oxygen. When
they recombine to make ozone, you get energy release and
heating
 Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation,
warming it up in the mid-upper parts of the layer. The
reason for the increase in temperatures in the stratosphere
with height relates to the wavelength of the incoming solar
energy. At higher altitudes in the stratosphere, ozone very
efficiently absorbs UV at wavelengths between 200 and 350
nanometers. At lower altitudes in the stratosphere, ozone
absorbs UV at wavelengths between 44 and 80 nanometers
but much less efficiently. This results in a rate of warming
in the lower stratosphere that is less than the rate higher in
the stratosphere, causing the temperature to increase with
height.
 Therefore is hottest at the highest layers, cooler down
where it contacts the cold upper troposphere
What is OZONE?

 A gaseous layer in the upper

atmosphere that protects the earth
from harmful ultraviolet radiation. At
lower levels, ozone becomes a major
pollutant.
 The Mesosphere
 Above the Stratosphere, the mass of
atmosphere is only 0.1% of the total, and
the density is too low for ozone chemistry
to heat the atmosphere
 Hence, we get the normal trend we saw in
the troposphere re-asserting itself – lower
temperature with lower pressure and
lower altitude.
 This layer is 30-50 miles above the
ground.
 The Ionosphere (Thermosphere)

 Above mesosphere; density so low

the Space Shuttle and ISS orbit
here, with little drag
 Temperature can be very high;
4,000F. But no significant heat
because density is so low.
 Heated by ionization by UV from the
sun, and the solar wind.
AIR POLLUTION
What is SMOG?

 Pollution formed by the

interaction of pollutants and
sunlight (photochemical
smog), usually restricting
visibility, and occasionally
hazardous to health.
 Spray cans, such as hair
spray, polish, perfumes and
paints
WEATHER vs CLIMATE
 Weather
 Short term atmospheric conditions that
exist for a given time in a specific location
 Can be sum of variables such as
temperature, cloudiness, humidity,
precipitation, wind, storms, and pressure
 Temporal parameters can be moment,
day, week, season, year, or decade
 Climate
 Aggregate of day-to-day weather
conditions over a long period of time
 Includes both average characteristics
along with the variations and
extremes
 Normally 30 years for climate studies
 METEOROLOGY – scientific study of
weather
 METEOROLOGIST – people who
specializes to study the weather
Major Elements of Weather and
Climate
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Wind
 Moisture Content
 TEMPERATURE
 3/5 of the solar radiation coming
toward the earth is absorbed by the
atmosphere, so only small amount of
sun’s heat actually reaches us
 EQUITORIAL ZONE receives the
greatest amount of heat
 Thermometers
 Cotton Region Shelter
• Max and Min •Max Min
Thermometers Temperature
 Alcohol (min) System (MMTS)
 Mercury (max) • Thermistor
Temperature Units.
 Latitude
 Latitude influences temperature
 Positional relationship between Earth
and Sun
 Varying amounts of radiant energy
Temperature Inversions

Common Summer Inversion in Los Angeles

 Temperature Inversions
When warmer air overlies cooler air, pollutants
and fog are trapped beneath the inversion.

Common Winter Radiation Inversion in Valleys

Transfer of Heat Energy

1.Radiation

2.Conduction

3.Convection
 Radiation
•The transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic
radiation.
•Earth is heated by this process.
- various substances on earth (dirt, rocks,
water, concrete, sand, etc.) absorb this energy and
their heat level is raised. They transmit that heat
through mainly convective heat transfer to the
surrounding atmosphere, and eventually to us.
 Conduction
• The transfer of heat energy from one
substance to another or within a substance.
• Very effective in heating metals
• Air is a poor conductor.
 Convection
• The transfer of heat energy in a fluid.
• Commonly seen in the kitchen when you see boiling
water
• Air in the atmosphere acts a fluid
Earth-Atmosphere Energy Balance
The Effects of Clouds

• Nighttime: clouds keep the earth warmer

• Daytime: clouds keep the earth cooler
 Air Pressure
• Density of Molecules decreases with height.

• Although the atmosphere goes up to 184

miles, half of the atmosphere is in the first
18,000 feet or 3.4 miles.

• Less molecules (same composition) higher

up makes it is harder to breath than at sea
level.

• Air Pressure is converted to Sea Level

Pressure to observe surface low and high
pressures. (otherwise the Rocky Mts. would
be always be low pressure and the oceans
would be areas of high pressure).

• Pressure also dependent upon Temperature

(We will perform an experiment on this)
Barometers
 Draw Isotherms.

26.64 -- 902 Hurricane Katrina (2005)

Surface Pressure
 Coriolis force
The Coriolis force makes the winds in low-
pressure weather systems such as hurricanes
rotate (counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere), curving into spirals. Air initially
starts to move through the atmosphere under
the influence of pressure gradients that push it
from high pressure to low pressure areas. As it
travels, the Coriolis force starts to bend its
course. The motion tends toward a state called
geostrophic flow, where the pressure gradient
force and the Coriolis force exactly balance
each other.
 When a low-pressure region develops in the
Northern Hemisphere, pressure forces direct air
from the outside toward the low. Air that
moves in as a response to this force is
deflected to the right and rotates counter-
clockwise around the system. In contrast, a
region of high pressure produces a pressure
force directed away from the high. Air starting
to move in response to this force is deflected to
the right (in the Northern Hemisphere),
producing a clockwise circulation pattern
around a region of high pressure
 Moisture, Clouds, and
Precipitation
 Humidity
 Global Precipitation
 Lifting Mechanisms
 Precipitation Processes
Hydrologic Cycle
 Hydrologic Cycle
• Evaporation
• change of water from a liquid to a gas.
• Stepping out of a shower or swimming
pool

• Transpiration
• evaporation of water from plants

• Condensation
• water vapor returns to a liquid (i.e.,
clouds, fog, mist, dew or frost)

• Precipitation

• Runoff
• Excessive precipitation that cannot be
absorbed by the ground.
Global Precipitation
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY:
Absolute humidity (expressed as grams of water
vapor per cubic meter volume of air) is a measure of
the actual amount of water vapor (moisture) in the
air, regardless of the air's temperature. The higher
the amount (weight) of water vapor per kilogram,
the higher the absolute humidity.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
Relative humidity (RH) (expressed as a percent)
also measures water vapor, but RELATIVE to the
temperature of the air.
In other words, it is a measure of the actual amount
of water vapor in the air compared to the total
amount of vapor that can exist in the air at its
current temperature.
WARM AIR CAN HOLD MORE WATER VAPOR THAN
COLD AIR, so with the same amount of
absolute/specific humidity, cooler air will have a
HIGHER relative humidity, and warmer air a LOWER
relative humidity.
 Humidity
 Capacity of air is primarily a function
of temperature
 Relative Humidity (RH) =
(actual water vapor content)
x 100 (max. water vapor
capacity of the air)

 Heated air becomes lower in RH

because denominator gets larger
 Cooled air becomes higher in RH
 Saturation vs
Air Temperature
The actual amount of 47 grams
104 F
Water air can hold changes
With air temperature

Air at 104 F can hold 3 times

As much water as 68 F air !
(47 grams vs only 15 grams) 15 grams 68 F

Air at 68 F can hold 4 times 32 F

4 grams
As much water as air at 0 F
(15 grams vs only 4 grams)
 Saturation and Dew Point
 Saturated v.
unsaturated air
 Dew-point
temperature
• temperature to which
air must be cooled to
reach saturation
(100% RH)
 water on outside of
drinking glass
 ice on your car
window
 dew and fog
Adiabatic Cooling: Clouds and Lifting
Condensation Level (LCL)

 LCL / Cloud base = dew point

Relative Humidity and Temp.
RH fluctuates over a day or
season.
 Measuring Relative Humidity

Sling
psychrometer

Hair
hygrometer
After Saturation Occurs the Air
Must Release Extra Water as
Fluid
Water forms on the outside of a cold glass as the cold
Air surrounding the glass chills the air to the Dew
Point Temperature

The resulting water

is not from the glass,
the water is from
condensation of
moisture in the air
around the glass
 In Nature Extra Moisture is
Transformed to Water Droplets
Cold air next to the rain-soaked cliff is chilled
To The Dew Point Temperature & creates a
Misty Cloud
along a Rocky
Mountain slope

Air near the

Slope is 100%
Saturated
 Land and Water Distribution
 Moisture content and temperature
 Continental versus maritime climates
 Oceans heat and cool slower than
landmasses
 Source of moisture
 Uneven distribution of land and
water
 General Circulation of the
Atmosphere
 Semipermanent pattern of wind and
pressure systems in the troposphere
 Local wind to regional patterns
 Winds in the tropics from east while
midlatitudes from west
 General Circulation of the
Oceans
 Heat transfer with currents
 Warm water poleward and cool water
towards the equator
 Warm currents off east coasts of
continents
 Cool currents off west coasts of
continents
 Elevation
 Temperature, pressure, and moisture
content decrease with increase in
elevation
 Influence in mountainous areas
 Topographic Barriers
 Mountains and hills have effects on
climate elements
 Lake effect snow
 Windward and leeward side of
mountains
 Storms
 Local thunderstorm
 Tornado
 Hurricane
 Monsoon
 Blizzard
 Mid Latitude Cyclone
 Thunderstorms
 Heavy rain
 Lightning
 Flash Flooding
 Hail
 Wind
 Tornadoes
 Severe Thunderstorms
 Winds > 50 kts (58 mph)
 Hail ≥ 1”
 Tornado
 Life Cycle
 Three Main Stages
 Initial
 Mature
 Dissipation
 Initial Stage
 Towering Cumulus Stage
 Persistent updraft and rapidly
growing vertical cloud
 Expanding cloud diameter
 Mature Stage
 Updraft strength reaches maximum
height
 Some storm tops over 25,000’-
60,000’ agl
 Lightning at beginning of mature
stage
 Rainfall begins and forces downdraft
 Microbursts
 Hail
 Gust front
 Pool of cool air at surface
 Dissipation Stage
 Dome of cool air cuts off updraft at
surface and causes storm to die out
 Edge of dome is now in outflow
boundary, potential for new
thunderstorms to form
 Possible tornado formation due to
enhanced low-level horizontal shear
Thunderstorm Stages
Types of Thunderstorms
 Forms of Thunderstorms
 Squall Line: organized line of
individual cells (downbursts,
straight-line winds)
 Multicell Cluster (MCC): strong
updrafts (hail, heavy precipitation);
can exist for hours
 Supercell: strong updrafts and
vertical wind shear (potential
mesocyclones and tornadoes); large
hail and downbursts
 Tornadoes
 Rapidly rotating column of air that
extends from cloudbase to ground
 Invisible
 Primarily produced by mesocyclones
 Tornado Lifecycle
 Dust Whirl
 Organizing
 Mature
 Weakening
 Rope
Tornado Formation
 Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse
Prevents effect
heat loss mainly is the
from rise in (air
convection
temperature
movement carryingthat thethe
away Earth experiences
heat)
because certain gases in the atmosphere
(water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide,
and methane, for example) trap energy
from the sun. Without these gases, heat
would escape back into space and Earth’s
average temperature would be about 60ºF
colder. Because of how they warm our
world, these gases are referred to as
greenhouse gases.
 On the average, the earth's surface absorbs
only 51 percent of the incoming solar radiation
after it is filtered, absorbed, and reflected. This
does not include the radiation emitted back to
the surface from the greenhouse effect, which
is equivalent to 93 units if the percentages in
The Radiation Budget : Incoming Solar (SW) & outgoing
 Major Greenhouse Gases
 Carbon dioxide (CO2), the most
significant GHG directly affected by
anthropogenic activity, is the product of
the oxidation of carbon in organic matter,
either through combustion of carbon-
based fuels or the decay of biomass.
Natural CO sources include volcanic
eruptions, respiration of organic matter in
natural ecosystems, natural fires, and
exchange of dissolved CO with the oceans.
 The main anthropogenic sources are
(a) fossil fuel combustion and (b)
deforestation and land use changes
(such as converting agricultural land
or forests to urban development),
which release stored organic matter
and reduce the ability of natural
ecosystems to store carbon.
 Methane (CH4) is produced by anaerobic
decay of organic material in landfills,
wetlands, and rice fields; enteric
fermentation in the digestive tracts of
ruminant animals such as cattle, goats,
and sheep; manure management;
wastewater treatment; fossil fuel
combustion; and leaks from natural gas
transportation and distribution systems
and abandoned coal mines.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced
by fertilizer use, animal waste
management, fossil fuel combustion,
and industrial activities.
 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are synthetic
chemicals that are used in a variety of industrial
production processes such as semiconductor
manufacturing. PFCs are also produced as a by-
product of aluminum smelting. Both groups of
chemicals are finding increasing use as
substitutes for ozone-depleting
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are being
phased out under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. HFCs
and PFCs are replacing CFCs in applications such
as refrigeration and foam-blowing for insulation.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs133-99/gl_v
18,000 years ago
Melting of the Western Antarctic Ice Sheet
Melting of the Eastern and Western Antarctic Ice Sheet
 Atmospheric Lifting
Mechanisms
Air Lifting processes create clouds & precipitation
Are the only means of precipitation on Earth
Four types of lifting are recognized:

1. Convectional Lifting
2. Convergence
3. Orographic Lifting
4. Frontal Lifting
Global Precipitation Patterns
Convergence
Convergence occurs
when large air masses
meet & are forced to
rise vertically by
crowding of molecules.

This process is best seen

at the ITCZ where the
Trades Winds meet &
rise to form towering
clouds & heavy
precipitation
 Convectional Lifting
Anywhere air is warmer
than its surrounding air, it
will rise.

In this example an island

heats more than the
surrounding water and
causes a massive cumulus
cloud to form.
Convectional Lifting Over Florida
Warmer temperatures over the peninsula of
Florida, which is land, cause air to rise
compared to the cooler oceans nearby

Rising air in this

Shuttle Picture is
Shown by a
Cloud pattern
which generally
follows the shape
of the southern
Florida peninsula
Convectional Lifting in the Desert
Extremely high afternoon temperatures in late
summer often leads to thunderstorms
throughout the world’s arid regions.

Mojave Desert
The Grand Canyon in August
 Orographic Lifting of Air
When air moving
Horizontally
Encounters a Moisture
Mountain it must Lost
Rise over the crest Dry
Moist Air
As it rises, it cools Air
To create clouds,
And most often
precipitation
Run off NO Run off
 Frontal Lifting of Air
Although not a mountain range, masses of moving air
Create the same effect – Unlike mountains air masses
Can provide lifting in many different locations

Fronts can lift air

Which is stable,
Creating clouds
& large amounts
Of precipitation
As rain, snow,
Sleet or hail
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