Welding Inspector

Section 17

Weldability Of Steels
 Weldability of Steels
Weldability simply means the ability to be
welded and many types of weldable steel have
been developed for a wide range of applications.

The ease or difficulty of making a weld with

suitable properties and free from defects
determines whether steels are considered as
having good or poor weldability.
 Weldability of Steels
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding
processes, and the resulting welded joint retain the
properties for which it has been designed.
A number of inter-related factors determine whether a steel
has good or poor weldability :

Composition of material
Joint design, size & configuration
Welding Process used
Properties required from the weld
 Weldability of Steels
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon &
other alloying elements content.

If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special

measures to ensure the maintenance of the properties
required

Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of

cracking

A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:

• an acceptable joint can only be made by using very

narrow range of welding conditions

• great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g.,

high pre-heat etc)
The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce
the properties required to make it useful for an
application.
Most elements can have many effects on the
properties of steels.
Other factors which affect material
properties are:
• The temperature reached before and during
welding
• Heat input
• The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
Alloying Elements and their Effects
Iron Fe Main constituent
Carbon C Strength
Manganese Mn Toughness
Silicon Si < 0.3% Deoxidiser
Alumunium Al Grain Refiner
Chromium Cr Corrosion resistant
Molybdenum Mo 1% for Creep resistant
Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature application
Copper Cu Used for Weathering protection
Sulphur S Residual element
Phosphorous P Residual Element
Titanium Ti Grain refiner (Strength & Toughness)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner (Strength & Toughness)
 CeV
Carbon equivalent formulae is a numerical value
for a steel composition which would give an
indication of a carbon content which would
contribute to an equivalent level of hardenability
for that steel.

CEV = C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu

6 5 15
 Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material,
high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being
generated

C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)

Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections
will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or
electrodes should be used

Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)

Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required
 Process Cracks
• Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels)

• Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking (HSLA steels).

• Solidification or Hot Cracking (All steels)

• Lamellar Tearing (All steels)

• Re-heat Cracking (All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V

steels)

• Inter-Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay (stainless

steels)
 Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
• Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and
contraction

• Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through
plates being welded to each other

• Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
 Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
HICC

Cold Cracking = Cracks occur when the weld has cooled down
HAZ cracking = Cracks occur mainly in the HAZ
Delayed Cracking = Cracks may occur some time after welding has
finished (possibly upto 72 hrs)
 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
May occur: Also known as:
up to 72 hrs after completion Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal. HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
At weld toes
Delayed cracking, as it takes
Under weld beads time for the hydrogen to
migrate, up to 72,
At stress raisers.
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead
 Factors for HICC

There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the

4 factors occur together:
Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress More than ½ the yield stress
Temperature Below 300oC
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers
Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known

• Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

• Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on
the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
consumable gas

Water vapour Moisture on

in the air or H2 the electrode
in the H2 or grease on
shielding gas the wire
H2
Oxide or grease on H2 H2
the plate
 Cracking Mechanism
Hydrogen can enter the molten metal when hydrogen
containing molecules are broken down into H atoms in
the welding arc.

If the Weldment is hot, then H atoms can easily came

out from the weldment.

These H atoms become entrapped inside HAZ, if the

weldment cools down quickly.

H atoms have to come out of the weldment, so if the

HAZ has a susceptible microstructire, relatively hard,
brittle and high tensile stresses, The H- Cracking occurs
 Avoiding HAZ cracking
All factors are independent, so cracking can be
avoided by ensuring that at least one of the factors
is not active during welding.

Factors to control
Hydrogen Level/ content
Yield stress
Temperature
Microstructure / Hardness
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Typical locations for Cold Cracking

 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations,
and slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen electrodes and correct arc
length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions
Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure – MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)
CEV = C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.
 Weldability

Solidification Cracking
 Solidification Cracking

Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline

 Solidification Cracking
Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks

Crack type: Solidification cracking

Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction
of solidification
 Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
• Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal
(sulphur, phosphor and carbon)
• The amount of stress/restraint
• Joint design high depth to width ratios (D3:W1)
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying
grains.
High contraction strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
• Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
 Solidification Cracking
• Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in
the weld metal to form iron sulphides (low
strength, low melting point compounds)
• During weld metal solidification, columnar
crystals push still liquid iron sulphides in front
to the last place of solidification, weld
centerline.
• The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress and may now
be very poor to maintain cohesion and a
crack will result, weld centerline.
 Solidification Cracking
Avoidance
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ

Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead

On solidification the
bonding between the
grains may be adequate to
maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur
On solidification the
bonding between the grains
may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a
crack may result
 Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
•The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to
choose a low dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further
dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S
which form between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should
be a minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise
restraint
 Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
• The use of high manganese and low carbon content
fillers
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphorous & sulphur)
• Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints
and any other sulphur containing product)
• Joint design selection depth to width ratios
 Solidification Cracking
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking

large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area

with high concentration of impurities

Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur,

phosphorous and other impurities).

High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal

conductivity, with high resultant residual stress

same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels

with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution
controls.
 Cracks

Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area

Critical
area
 Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation

Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
 Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion
boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
• Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
• Joint design, direction of stress
• The amount of stress acting across the joint during
welding
• Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress
 Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.

High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate

(know as the short transverse direction).

T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress

component in the through thickness direction.

Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld Corner butt weld

(double-bevel) (single-bevel)
 Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing

Susceptible Non-Susceptible

Prior welding both An open corner joint

plates may be grooved may be selected to
to avoid lamellar tearing avoid lamellar tearing
 Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
• The use of buttering runs
• A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take
place
• Joint design selection
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• Hydrogen precautions
 Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing

Friction Welded Caps

Short Tensile Specimen
Sample of Parent Material

Through
Thickness
Ductility

The results are given as a STRA value

Short Transverse Reduction in Area
 Lamellar Tearing

Restraint

Lamellar tear
High contractional
strains
 Weld Decay
Weld decay is a form of intergranular corrosion, that
occurs as the result of sensitization in the heat-affected
zone during the welding operation. The corrosive attack is
restricted to the heat affected zone (HAZ).

Affected materials
Certain types of Stainless steel

Requires 2 factors at the same time

Sensitive HAZ
Corrosive liquid in contact with sensitive HAZ, in Service
Weld decay is also called
Sensitization or crystallization
Weld decay occurs within the susceptible temperature
range of approximately 600-850 °C i.e in HAZ or high
temperature service.
At this temperature, carbon diffuses to the grain boundaries
and combines with chromium to form CARBIDES, leaving
Cr-depleted layer susceptible to corrosion along the grain
boundaries, therefore corrosion cracking occurs along grain
boundaries in the HAZ.

Avoidance: Weld decay can be avoided by keeping the

carbon low, e.g using low carbon grades like 304L and
the heat input low by avoiding preheat or PWHT. It is
also possible to use grades with added elements which
combine with the carbon e.g 321 (which contains Ti) or
347 (which contains Nb)