Essentials of Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Chapter 14
Darwin and Evolution
Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs
Southern Illinois University Carbondale

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 14.1 Darwin’s Theory of
Evolution
• Charles Darwin’s derived his theory of
evolution in part from observations he
made while serving as the naturalist
aboard the HMS Beagle.
14.1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Before Darwin (cont.)
 Before Darwin
• Prior to Darwin’s theories, there were different
views of the world and living organisms.
• The research of several scientists helped
change the world’s perception of the world and
living organisms.

• Zoologist Georges Cuvier, who founded the field

of paleontology, suggested that catastrophes
were responsible for the drastic changes in living
organisms over time.
Before Darwin (cont.)
 Before Darwin (cont.)
• Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck offered
explanations for the changes in organisms
between strata.
– Evolution occurred as the environment forced
organisms to adapt.
– These adaptations caused less complex
organisms to evolve into more complex
organisms.
– Adaptation occurs because of the use or
disuse of a structure, an element of the theory
of acquired characteristics.
 Before Darwin (cont.)
• Darwin’s ideas were similar to those of
Lamarck, but with important differences.
– Darwin believed that living things share
common characteristics because they have a
common ancestor.
– Darwin also believed that the organisms
adapt to the environment, but through a
process called natural selection.
 Darwin’s Conclusions
• Darwin’s conclusions were based upon his
study of geology, fossils, and
biogeography.
 Darwin’s Study of Geology and
Fossils
• Geological theories contributed to Darwin’s
efforts.

• James Hutton proposed that the Earth

undergoes slow, continuous cycles of erosion
and uplifting.

• Erosion deposits thick layers of sediment, which

eventually form sedimentary rocks.

• The uplifting of sedimentary rock forms new land

and can expose fossils.
Darwin’s Study of Geology and
Fossils (cont.)
Darwin’s Study of Geology and
Fossils (cont.)
 Darwin’s Study of Geology and
Fossils (cont.)
• Lyell proposed the theory of
uniformitarianism, which maintained that
extreme geological changes could be
caused by slow, natural processes.

• This theory also suggested that the Earth

must be very old, much older than most
believed.
 Darwin’s Study of Geology and
Fossils (cont.)
• Darwin observed similar geological
changes and collected fossils during his
time on the Beagle.

• These activities caused Darwin to accept

the fact that the Earth was very old.

• From this, Darwin proposed that modern

organisms may have descended from now
extinct organisms.
Darwin’s Study of Geology and
Fossils (cont.)
Darwin’s Study of Biogeography
• Darwin made extensive comparisons
between similar animals from around the
world to understand evolution.

• He postulated that similar environments

may have caused convergent evolution, or
the development of similar adaptations.
Darwin’s Study of Biogeography
(cont.)
Darwin’s Study of Biogeography
(cont.)
• When Darwin’s ship reached the
Galapagos Islands, he noticed that the
finches had greatly diversified.

• The finches had different beak structures

as well as different feeding habits.
Darwin’s Study of Biogeography
Darwin’s Study of Biogeography
(cont.)
• From his observation of the Galapagos
finches, Darwin postulated that speciation
had occurred.

• Speciation is the process by which

different groups of an organism evolve
independently from one another, ultimately
becoming a different species.
 Natural Selection and
Adaptation
• Darwin suggested that natural selection was the
process that caused adaptation.
• The process of natural selection has several
preconditions that must be met.
1. The members of a population have heritable variations
2. The population produces more offspring than the resources of an
environment can support.
3. The individuals that have favorable traits survive and reproduce to
a greater extent than those that lack these traits.
4. Over time, the proportion of a favorable trait increases in the
population, and the population becomes adapted to the
environment.
Natural Selection and Adaptation
 Natural Selection and
Adaptation (cont.)
• If the preconditions are met, natural
selection has consequences.
– In each generation, an increasing number of
individuals have the adaptive characteristics.
– Natural selection adapts a population to its
local environment.

• Natural selection relies on the variations

produced by genetic changes.
 Organisms Have Variations
• Prior to Darwin, variation within a
population was ignored.

• Darwin argued that the random

occurrence of these variations was
essential to natural selection.

• These variations that allow for adaptation

to the environment must also be heritable.
 Organisms Struggle to Exist
• Thomas Malthus believed that death and famine were
inevitable because human population increases faster
than food supplies.

• Darwin used this concept to argue that available

resources were insufficient to allow all members of a
population to survive.
• Thus there is a constant struggle to obtain the resources
needed to survive and reproduce.
 Organisms Differ in Fitness
• Those organisms best capable of obtaining the
resources necessary to survive and reproduce are those
with the greatest fitness.
• The character that determines whether an organism is fit
varies from population to population.
• When humans carry out artificial selection, breeders
select specific traits that are favorable.
• The concepts of natural selection and fitness argue that
interaction with the environment and random variation
are responsible for evolution.
• This differs from the theory of acquired characteristics
proposed by Lamarck.
Organisms
Differ in
Fitness
 Organisms Become Adapted
• The consequence of natural selection and
fitness is that organisms adapt to their
environment.

• The adaptations that make organisms more

suited to the environment can occur
simultaneously in different species.

• Convergent evolution occurs when different

organisms acquire similar adaptations.
Organisms Become Adapted
 Evidence for Evolution
• According to the theory of evolution, organisms descend
from a common ancestor but adapt to particular
environments.
• There are several lines of evidence that support the
theory of evolution.

Fossil Evidence
The fossil record contains rich information about the life
on Earth >10,000 years ago.

One piece of evidence provided by the fossil record is

that the pattern of evolution is typically from simple to
more complex.

The fossil record also reveals transitional links between

different organismal groups.
Fossil Evidence (cont.)
 Biogeographical Evidence
• Biogeography is the study of the distribution of
plants and animals throughout the world.

• While there are many similar environments

around the world, the plants and animals that
live there are often unique.

• The different organisms must have arisen from

different evolutionary events.
Biogeographical
Evidence
 Anatomical Evidence
• Darwin and others have also showed that different species share
vestigial structures that reveal their common descent.
– Whales and snakes all show vestigial bones related to four-legged
animals.
– Humans have a tailbone but not tail.

• Organisms may also have homologous structures, which are

anatomically similar structures that reveal common ancestry.
In contrast, organisms may have analogous structures,
which have a similar function but are derived differently
evolutionarily.

The homology of all vertebrates can be seen in the

similarities in embryonic development.
Anatomical Evidence (cont.)
Anatomical Evidence (cont.)
 Biochemical Evidence
• The study of biochemistry and genetics
has shown that many organisms use
similar chemicals and genes.

• The diversity in living organisms is due to

slight differences in this set of genes.
Biochemical Evidence (cont.)