INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

Ethics & Codes

• Ethics provides a set of standards for behavior that helps us
decide how we ought to act in a range of situations.

• Ethics are described as moral guides to self-regulation,

attempt to ensure the appropriate use of skills and
techniques.

• Codes are defined as principles specifying the rights and

responsibilities of professionals in their relationship with
each other and with the people they serve, as well as stating
the normative values reflecting the consensus of the
profession.
 Why develop ethical codes
• Lethal human experimentation by Imperial
Japanese Army during World War II (Unit 731)
• Nazi war crimes ( 1945 – 1946)
• USA Tuskegee study (between 1932 and 1972)
• USA Willowbrook study (1956-1970’s)
• The Aversion Project
• Henry Beecher’s article (1966)
 Questionable Psychological
experiments
• Watson (1920)
• McGraw (1941)
• Dennis (1941)
• The monster study (1939) by Johnson and
Tudor.
 Approaches to Ethical Decision
Making
• The Rights Approach
• The Utilitarian Approach
• The Virtue Approach
• The Fairness (or Justice) Approach
• The Common Good Approach
 The Rights Approach
• An important approach to ethics has its roots in the philosophy of
the 18th-century thinker Immanuel Kant and others like him, who
focused on the individual's right to choose for herself or himself.

• According to these philosophers, what makes human beings

different from mere things is that people have dignity based on their
ability to choose freely what they will do with their lives, and they
have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected.

• rights to the truth, privacy rights, a right not to be injured, and a

right to what is agreed (i.e., we have a right to what has been
promised by those with whom we have freely entered into a contract
or agreement).
• In deciding whether an action is moral or
immoral using this approach, then, we must
ask, Does the action respect the moral rights of
everyone?
 The Utilitarian Approach
• Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th
century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart
Mill to help legislators determine which laws
were morally best.
• Both Bentham and Mill suggested that ethical
actions are those that provide the greatest
balance of good over evil.
• Cost/Benefit Analysis
• To analyze an issue using the utilitarian approach, we
first identify the various courses of action available to
us.
• Second, we ask who will be affected by each action
and what benefits or harms will be derived from each.
• And third, we choose the action that will produce the
greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical
action is the one that provides the greatest good for
the greatest number.
 The Virtue Approach
• The virtue approach to ethics assumes that there are
certain ideals toward which we should strive. These
ideals provide for the full development of our humanity,
and are discovered through thoughtful reflection on
what kind of people we have the potential to become.
•
• Virtues are attitudes or character traits that enable us to
be and to act in ways that develop our highest potential.
They enable us to pursue the ideals we have adopted.
Such as Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity,
fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control etc
• Virtues are like habits; that is, once acquired,
they become characteristic of a person.

• In dealing with an ethical problem using the

virtue approach, we might ask,
What kind of person should I be? What will
promote the development of character within
myself?
The Fairness (or Justice) Approach
• The fairness or justice approach to ethics has its
roots in the teachings of the ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle, who said that "equals
should be treated equally and unequals
unequally."

• The basic moral question in this approach is: How

fair is an action? Does it treat everyone in the
same way, or does it show favoritism and
discrimination?
 The Common Good Approach
• This approach to ethics assumes a society
comprising individuals whose own good is
inextricably linked to the good of the
community. Community members are bound
by the pursuit of common values and goals.

• The common good is a notion that originated

more than 2,000 years ago in the writings of
Plato and Aristotle.
• In this approach, we focus on ensuring that the
social policies, social systems, institutions, and
environments on which we depend are
beneficial to all.

• Examples of goods common to all include

affordable health care, effective public safety,
peace among nations, a just legal system, and
an unpolluted environment.
 The Goals of Code of Ethics
• Sensitization to an ethical way of professional
life
• The provision of a structural guide and altering
mechanisms of ethical issues and dilemmas
• Document of reference for identifying
unethical acts
 Goals of Ethics continued…….
• Conduct of psychologists with different
training background
• Prescribe ways to protect welfare of a variety
of public
 Criticism on Code of Ethics
Principles are worded abstractly leading to
different interpretations
Mixes highest moral values with professional
etiquettes
Some codes are vague and require individual
judgment
Some codes are very rigid and too detailed
 Themes of Code of Ethics
 Promoting the welfare of consumers served
 Maintaining competence
 Protecting confidentiality and privacy
 Acting responsibly
 Avoiding exploitation
 Upholding the professional integrity
 How do Ethical Dilemmas Arise
 An ethical problem may simply be unforeseen
 An ethical problem may be inadequately
anticipated
 An ethical problem may be foreseen but there
may be no apparent way to avoid it
 What to do may be unclear due to ambiguities
of consequences of available alternatives
• An ethical problem may arise when available
guidelines/laws are inadequate or non-existent
relative to the situation

• An ethical problem may arise whenever one

responds to demand of law or government
policy.
 APA Ethical Guidelines
• APA established an ethical committee in 1938,
however the formal ethical code was
developed in 1953.

• The current “Ethical Principles of

Psychologists” has ten annotated principles.
• Responsibility
• Competence
• Moral & Legal Standards
• Public Statement
• Assessment Techniques
• Research with Human Participants
• Care and Use of Animals

• Some recent themes include special punishments

against sexual intimacies with clients and sexual
harassment.
 Other APA guidelines
• Standards of Provides of Professional Services
(1977)
• Ethical Principles in the conduct of research
with Human Participants (1982)
• Standards for Educational and Psychological
tests (1984)
General Principles of the APA code of
ethics
• Beneficence & Non-malfeasance
• Fidelity & Responsibility
• Integrity
• Justice
• Respect for people’s right and dignity
 Beneficence & Non-malfeasance
• Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and
take care to do no harm. In their professional actions,
psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those
with whom they interact professionally and other affected
persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of research. When
conflicts occur among psychologists' obligations or concerns,
they attempt to resolve these conflicts in a responsible fashion
that avoids or minimizes harm. Because psychologists'
scientific and professional judgments and actions may affect
the lives of others, they are alert to and guard against personal,
financial, social, organizational, or political factors that might
lead to misuse of their influence. Psychologists strive to be
aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental
health on their ability to help those with whom they work.
 Fidelity & Responsibility

Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with

whom they work. This principle obligates psychologists to be
constantly aware of their responsibility to society and reminds
them always to exemplify the highest standards of professional
behavior in their role as researcher or therapist.
 Integrity
• Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the
science, teaching, and practice of psychology. In these activities
psychologists do not steal, cheat or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or
intentional misrepresentation of fact. Psychologists strive to keep their
promises and to avoid unwise or unclear commitments. In situations in
which deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and
minimize harm, psychologists have a serious obligation to consider the
need for, the possible consequences of, and their responsibility to correct
any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects that arise from the use of
such techniques.
 Justice
• Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons
to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to
equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being
conducted by psychologists. Psychologists exercise reasonable
judgment and take precautions to ensure that their potential biases,
the boundaries of their competence, and the limitations of their
expertise do not lead to or condone unjust practices.
Respect for people’s right and dignity
• Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of

individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. Psychologists are

aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of

persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making.

Psychologists are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences,

including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture,

national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic

status, and consider these factors when working with members of such groups.

Psychologists try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on those

factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of others

based upon such prejudices.

 Enforcement of Ethical Conduct in
Psychology
Control through general criminal and civil law
Control exerted through peers
Profession specific legal control through state
licensing boards
Control through civil litigation of malpractice
complaints
Controls imposed by federal laws and
regulations