Geometric Design OF

HIGHWAYS
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• geometric cross section
• vertical alignment
• horizontal alignment
• super elevation
• intersections
• various design details.
Goals Of Geometric Design

• maximize the comfort

• safety
• economy of facilities
• while maximizing their environmental
impacts
 GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION
 The primary consideration in the design of cross sections is
drainage.
 Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders
(or parking lanes), and drainage channels.
 Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature.
 Shoulders provide:
accommodation of stopped vehicles
emergency use,
and lateral support of the pavement.
 Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.
 Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed
swales) or of paved shoulders with berms of curbs and
gutters.
Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.
Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.
Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with
ditches.
Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed.
 GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

• Standard lane widths

- normally 3.6 m (12 ft)
- narrower lanes are common on older roadways,
and may still be provided in cases where the
standard lane width is not economical.
• Shoulders or parking lanes for heavily traveled roads
- normally 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 to 12 ft) in width
- narrower shoulders are sometimes used on lightly
traveled road.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
A transportation facility consists of :

• tangent grades (straight line in the

vertical plane)
• vertical curves. Vertical alignment is
documented by the profile.
TANGENT GRADES
• designated according to their slopes or grades
• maximum grades vary depending on the type of
facility, and usually do not constitute an absolute
standard
• effect of a steep grade
- slow down the heavier vehicles (which
typically have the lowest power/weight ratios)
- increase operating costs.
Vertical Curves
• join Vertical tangents with different grades

Symmetrical Vertical Curve

Vertical Curves
• normally parabolas centered about the point of
intersection (P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join
• thus of the form

where y = elevation of a point on the curve

yo = elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve (BVC)
g1 = grade just prior to the curve
x = horizontal distance from the BVC to the point on the curve
r = rate of change of grade
Vertical Curves
The rate of change of grade, in turn, is given by

where :
r = rate of change of grade
g1 = grade just prior to the curve
g2 = the grade just beyond the end of the vertical
curve (EVC)
L = the length of the curve.
Vertical Curves
classified as:
- sags where g2 > g1 and
- crests where g2 > g1

r (and hence the term rx2 /2) will be positive for sags
and negative for crests.

If grades are in percent, horizontal distance must be

in stations

If grades are dimensionless ratios, horizontal

distances must be in meters.
Design standards for vertical curves establish
their minimum lengths for specific circumstances

• based on
- sight distance,
- on comfort standards involving vertical
acceleration
- or appearance criteria.
• in most cases, sight distance or appearance
standards will govern for highways.
• the equations used to calculate minimum lengths
of vertical curves based on sight distance depend
on whether the sight distance is greater than or
less than the vertical curve length.
Stopping sight distance diagram for crest vertical curve.
CREST VERTICAL CURVES

the minimum length depends on :

- sight distance
- height of the driver’s eye
- height of the object to be seen over the crest of
the curve
 CREST VERTICAL CURVES

When S≤L

When S≥L

where S = sight distance (from Table)

L = vertical curve length
A = absolute value of the algebraic difference in grades, in
percent, |g1-g2|
h1 = height of eye
h2 = height of object
• for stopping sight distance, the height of object is normally
taken to be 150mm
• for passing sight distance, the height of object used by
AASHTO is 1300 mm
• height of eye is assumed to be 1070 mm.
SAG VERTICAL CURVES

• stopping sight distance is based on the

distance illuminated by the headlights at
night
• design standards are based on an assumed
headlight height of 600 mm and an upward
divergence of the headlight beam of 1°
• As in the case of crest vertical curves, the
formulas for minimum length of vertical
curve depend on whether the length of the
curve is greater or less than the sight
distance.
SAG VERTICAL CURVES

Stopping sight distance diagram for sag vertical curve.

SAG VERTICAL CURVES

the formula is
• Design charts of tables are used to determine
minimum length of vertical curve to provide
stopping sight distance for both crest and sag
vertical curves, and passing sight distance on
crests. These may be found in the AASHTO
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets.
Vertical Curve Lengths

• may be limited by the need to provide

clearances over or under objects
• overpasses
• drainage structures.
VERTICAL CURVES PASSING OVER
OBJECTS(e.g. Overpass)
• SAG CURVE – Minimum Lengths
• CREST CURVE – Maximum Lengths

VERTICAL CURVES PASSING UNDER

OBJECTS (e.g. Drainage)
• SAG CURVE – Maximum Lengths
• CREST CURVE – Minimum Lengths
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• for linear transportation facilities such as
highways and railways consists of :
• horizontal tangents
• circular curves
• possibly transition curves

• In the case of highways, transition curves

are not always used.
Horizontal alignments with and without
transition curves.
HORIZONTAL TANGENTS

• described in terms’ of their lengths (as expressed in

the stationing of the job) and their directions.

• directions may be either expressed as bearings or

as azimuths and are always defined in the direction
of increasing station.
CIRCULAR CURVES
• Horizontal curves are normally circular.
• Figure in the next slide illustrates several
of their important features.
• Horizontal curves are also described by
radius, central angle, length, semitangent
distance, middle ordinate, external
distance, and chord.
ELEMENTS OF A HORIZONTAL CURVE

The curve begins at the tangent-to-curve point (TC) and

ends at the curve-to-tangent point (CT).
• Design standards for horizontal curves
establish their minimum radii and, in
some cases, their minimum lengths.
• Minimum radius
• most commonly established by the
relationship between design speed,
maximum rate of superelevation, and
curve radius.
• In other cases, minimum radii or curve
lengths for highways may be established
by the need to provide stopping sight
distance or by appearance standards.
Transition Curves
• are used to connect tangents to circular curves.

 tangent to spiral point

(TS),
 spiral to curve point (SC),
 curve to spiral point (CS),
 spiral to tangent point
(ST).
 SUPERELEVATION
• The purpose of superelevation or banking of curves is to
counteract the centripetal acceleration produced as a
vehicle rounds a curve. The term itself comes from railroad
practice, where the top of the rail is the profile grade.

• Highways, no ice/snow
emax = 0.10
• Highways, snow/ice
emax = 0.06
• Traffic congestion or roadside development, limit speeds
emax = 0.04 ~ 0.06
Side Friction
Design based on point where centrifugal force creates feeling of discomfort
for driver
 INTERSECTIONS & INTERCHANGES
• Geometric Design of transportation
facilities must provide for the resolution of
traffic conflicts.
Merging
• In general, these conflicts may be
classified as:
Diverging
• Merging conflicts
• Occurs when vehicles enter a traffic stream
• Diverging conflicts
• Occurs when vehicles leave the traffic stream Weaving
• Weaving conflicts
• Occurs by merging then diverging
• Crossing conflicts
• Occurs when they cross paths directly Crossing
Three Basic Ways of Resolving Crossing
Conflicts

• Time-sharing Solutions
• Space-sharing Solutions
• Grade separation Solutions
At-grade intersections

• Except for freeways, all highways have

intersections at grade, so that the intersection
area is a part of every connecting road or
street.
• In this area, crossing and turning movements
occur.
• Some intersection are channelized – to
minimize traffic accidents, speed control,
prevention of prohibited turns, refuge may be
provided for pedestrians,
General types of at-grade
Intersections

Unchannelized T

Unchannelized Y

Flared T
 3-leg intersections
Y with turning roadways

Unchannelized

Channelized
INTERCHANGES
• classified according to the way they handle left-turning
traffic.

INTERCHANGE CONFIGURATION
• are selected on the basis of structural cost, right-of-way
costs, and ability to serve traffic.
DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE
Partial cloverleaf
Trumpet
FULL DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL-Y
ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)

ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)

OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)

OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)

 General Classes of Freeway
Interchanges
• Diamond Interchange
• Employ diamond
ramps which
connect to the cross
road by means of an
at grade
intersection.
• Left turns are
accomplished by
having vehicles turn
left across traffic on
the cross road.
 Cloverleaf
Interchange
 Employ loop
ramps, in which
vehicles turn left
by turning 270
degrees to the
right.
 Partial Cloverleaf Interchange (Parclo)
 Involves various combinations of diamond and
loop ramps.
 Trumpet Interchange
THANK
YOU!!!