Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Distance Protection
GE Multilin
Outline
• Transmission line introduction
• What is distance protection?
• Non-pilot and pilot schemes
• Redundancy considerations
• Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Out-of-step relaying
• Single-pole tripping
• Series-compensated lines
2/
GE /
September 19, 2010
Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
• Provide path to transfer power between generation
and load
• Operate at voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV
• Deregulated markets, economic, environmental
requirements have pushed utilities to operate
transmission lines close to their limits.
3/
GE /
September 19, 2010
Transmission Lines
4/
GE /
September 19, 2010
Typical Protection Schemes
Short Lines
• Current differential
• Phase comparison
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip
(POTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
5/
GE /
September 19, 2010
Typical Protection Schemes
Medium Lines
• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Inverse time overcurrent
• Current Differential
6/
GE /
September 19, 2010
Typical Protection Schemes
Long Lines
• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Current Differential
7/
GE /
September 19, 2010
What is distance protection?
Intended
REACH point
F1
Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V
For internal faults:
> IZ – V and V approximately in phase
RELAY (V,I) (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately in phase
(reactance)
8/
GE /
September 19, 2010
What is distance protection?
F2
Intended
REACH point
Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V
For external faults:
> IZ – V and V approximately out of
RELAY (V,I) phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately out of
phase (reactance)
9/
GE /
September 19, 2010
What is distance protection?
Intended
REACH point
RELAY
10 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Source Impedance Ratio,
Accuracy & Speed
Relay
Lin
System e
f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR ≈ VN
f LOC [ PU ] + SIR
Consider SIR = 30
Fault location Voltage Voltage change
(%) (%)
75% 2.4390 0.7868
90% 2.9126 0.3132
100% 3.2258 N/A
110% 3.5370 0.3112
12 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 30
– High frequency
– DC offset in currents 20
steady-state
output
– CVT transients in voltages 10
voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line
C1 6 -10
3 5 CVT output
1
-20
C2
2
Secondary Voltage
-30
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output
13 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 60
– High frequency
– DC offset in currents 40
steady-state
– CVT transients in voltages 20
output
voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line
C1 6 -20
CVT
3 5 output
1
-40
C2
2
Secondary Voltage
-60
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output
14 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Challenges in relay design
100
vA vB vC 100
80
60
20
50
Voltage [V]
-20 SPOL
-40
-60
0 Sorry… Future (unknown
-80
-100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-50
5
iA
4
3
SOP
-100
2 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Current [A]
power cycles
1
-3
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
15 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Transient Overreach
17 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
CVT transients can cause distance relays to overreach.
Generally, transient overreach may be caused by:
> overestimation of the current (the magnitude of the
current as measured is larger than its actual value, and
consequently, the fault appears closer than it is
actually located),
> underestimation of the voltage (the magnitude of the
voltage as measured is lower than its actual value)
> combination of the above
18 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
stance Element Fundamentals
Z1 End Zone
XL
XC
15
34
42
44 A c tu a l F a u lt
L o c a tio n
10
d y n a m ic m h o
z o n e e x te n d e d L in e
30
fo r h ig h S IR s Im p e d a n c e
5
Reactance [ohm]
18
T r a je c to r y
22 (m s e c )
0
26
-5
-1 0 -5 0
R e s is t a n c e [ o h m ]
Impedance
Impedancelocus
5
locusmay
10
maypass
pass
below
belowthe
theorigin
originofofthe
theZ-plane
Z-plane--
this
thiswould
wouldcall
callfor
foraatime
timedelay
delay
to
toobtain
obtainstability
stability
20 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
CVT Transient Overreach
Solutions
>apply delay (fixed or adaptable)
>reduce the reach
>adaptive techniques and better filtering
algorithms
21 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
> Optimize signal filtering:
– currents - max 3% error due to the dc component
– voltages - max 0.6% error due to CVT transients
> Adaptive double-reach approach
– filtering alone ensures maximum transient overreach
at the level of 1% (for SIRs up to 5) and 20% (for
SIRs up to 30)
– to reduce the transient overreach even further an
adaptive double-reach zone 1 has been implemented
22 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
The outer zone 1:
> is fixed at the actual reach
> applies certain security delay to cope with CVT
transients
X
The inner zone 1:
> has its reach D e la y e d
dynamically controlled T r ip
by the voltage
magnitude
> is instantaneous
In s ta n ta n e o u s
T r ip
23 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Desirable Distance Relay
Attributes
Filters:
> Prefiltering of currents to remove dc decaying transients
– Limit maximum transient overshoot (below 2%)
> Prefiltering of voltages to remove low frequency
transients caused by CVTs
– Limit transient overreach to less than 5% for an SIR of
30
> Accurate and fast frequency tracking algorithm
> Adaptive reach control for faults at reach points
24 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Relay Operating
Times
25 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Relay Operating
Times
35ms
25ms 30ms
20ms
15ms
26 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Relay Operating
Times
SLG faults LL faults
3P faults
27 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Actual
Actualmaximum
maximumreach
reachcurves
curves
Relay 4
Relay 3
100 Relay 2
Relay 1
90 28 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Maximum Torque Angle
29 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Mho Characteristics
Traditional
Directional
angle
“slammed”
Directional
angle lowered
and
“slammed”
Both MHO and
directional
angles
“slammed”
(lens)
30 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Load Swings
+XL
+ = LOOKING INTO
LINE normally
considered forward
h
Reac
Load
Trajectory
Operate No Operate
area
area
Typical load
characteristic
impedance
+R
31 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Load Swings
“Lenticular”
Characterist
ic
Load swing
32 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Load Encroachment
Characteristic
35 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Quadrilateral Characteristics
Ground Resistance
(Conductor falls on ground)
36 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Characteristics -
Summary
Mho Lenticula Quadrilat
JX r eral
R
Standard for Used for phase Better coverage
phase elements elements with long for ground faults
heavily loaded lines due to
heavily loaded resistance
added to return
path
37 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Element
Polarization
The following polarization quantities are
commonly used in distance relays for
determining directionality:
• Self-polarized
• Memory voltage
• Positive sequence voltage
• Quadrature voltage
• Leading phase voltage
38 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Memory Polarization
> Positive-sequence memorized voltage is used for
polarizing:
– Mho comparator (dynamic, expanding Mho)
– Negative-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance Mho and Quad)
– Zero-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance MHO and QUAD)
– Directional comparator (Phase Distance MHO and
QUAD)
> Memory duration is a common distance settings (all
zones, phase and ground, MHO and QUAD)
39 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not
established or expired)
ZL
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a reverse fa
ZS
40 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not
established or expired)
ZL
ZS
42 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Ground Directional Elements
> Pilot-aided schemes using ground mho distance relays have
inherently limited fault resistance coverage
> Ground directional over current protection using either negative or
zero sequence can be a useful supplement to give more coverage
for high resistance faults
> Directional discrimination based on the ground quantities is fast:
– Accurate angular relations between the zero and negative
sequence quantities establish very quickly because:
During faults zero and negative-sequence currents and
voltages build up from very low values (practically from
zero)
The pre-fault values do not bias the developing fault
components in any direction
43 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Schemes
Communication No Communication
between Distance between Distance
relays Relays
44 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
• Zone 1:
– Trips with no intentional time delay
– Underreaches to avoid unnecessary operation for faults beyond
remote terminal
– Typical reach setting range 80-90% of ZL
• Zone 2:
– Set to protect remainder of line
– Overreaches into adjacent line/equipment
– Minimum reach setting 120% of ZL
– Typically time delayed by 15-30 cycles
• Zone 3:
– Remote backup for relay/station failures at remote terminal
– Reaches beyond Z2, load encroachment a consideration
45 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
BU
BU
S
S
Z1
Remot
e
46 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1 End
Zone
BU
BU
S
S
End Z1
Zone Remot
e
47 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
Breake
r
Trippe
d
BU
BU
S
S
Breake
r Z1
Closed
Remot
e
48 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z2 (time
delayed)
Z1
BU
BU
S
S
Z1
Z2 (time
delayed)
49 /
Remot September 19, 2010
GE /
Step Distance Schemes
Z3 (remote …
backup)
Z2 (time
delayed)
Z1
BU
BU
S
S
50 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Step Distance Protection
51 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Relay Coordination
Over Lap
Local Relay – Z2
Remote Relay – Z4
52 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
eed For Pilot Aided Schemes
BU
BU
S
S
Local Remote
Relay Relay
Communication
Channel
53 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Pilot Communications
Channels
• Distance-based pilot schemes traditionally utilize
simple on/off communications between relays, but can
also utilize peer-to-peer communications and GOOSE
messaging over digital channels
• Typical communications media include:
– Pilot-wire (50Hz, 60Hz, AT)
– Power line carrier
– Microwave
– Radio
– Optic fiber (directly connected or multiplexed
channels)
54 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance-based Pilot
Protection
55 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
lot-Aided Distance-Based Schemes
Unblocking Scheme GE /
September 19, 2010
Direct Underreaching
Transfer Trip (DUTT)
• Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which overlap in
reach (Zone 1).
•Applied with FSK channel
– GUARD frequency transmitted during normal conditions
– TRIP frequency when one RU function operates
• Scheme does not provide tripping for faults beyond RU
reach if remote breaker is open or channel is inoperative.
• Dual pilot channels improve security
57 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
DUTT Scheme
Zone 1
Bus Bus
Line
Zone 1
58 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Permissive Underreaching
Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Requires both under (RU) and
overreaching (RO) functions
• Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping
signal supervised by RO (Zone 2)
59 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
PUTT Scheme
Rx PKP
Local Trip
Zone 2
&
OR
Zone 1
60 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Permissive Overreaching
Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone
2).
• Applied with FSK channel:
– GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
– TRIP frequency when one RO function
operates
• No trip for external faults if pilot channel is
inoperative
• Time-delayed tripping can be provided
61 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
POTT Scheme
62 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
POTT Scheme
POTT – Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
End
Zone
BU
BU
S
S
63 /
Communication GE /
Remote Relay – Z2
Communicat
TRIP ion Channel
POTT RX POTT TX
Communications
POTT RX 1 POTT TX 1 A to G
Channel(s)
POTT RX 2 POTT TX 2 B to G
POTT RX 3 POTT TX 3 C to G
65 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
POTT Scheme
Current reversal example
TRIP
GND
GNDDIR
DIROC
OCFWD
REV POTT RX POTT TX ZONE
GND 2 OC
DIR ORREV
GND DIR OC FWD
66 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
POTT Scheme
Echo example
Remote FWD
IGND
Open
Remote – Z2
OPEN Communication
Channel
TRIP
POTT RX POTT TX
Communication
Channel 67 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Hybrid POTT
68 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Hybrid POTT
69 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
• Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking (B)
functions
• ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)
– Transmitter is keyed to ON state when blocking
function(s) operate
– Receipt of signal from remote end blocks tripping
relays
• Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater
• Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and low-
set ground overcurrent elements
70 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
DCB Scheme
71 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
BUS
72 /
Communication Channel GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
Internal FaultsLocal Relay – Z2
FWD IGND
TRIP
TRIP Timer
Start
Expired
Zone 2 PKP
NO Dir Block RX
OR
Local Relay GND DIR OC Fwd Remote Relay
73 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
External FaultsLocal Relay – Z2
FWD IGND
Remote Relay – Z4
75 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
DCUB Scheme
F o rw a rd
Bus Bus
L in e
F o rw a rd
T r ip
( U n - B lo c k ) Tx1 L in e
B re a k e rs
( B lo c k ) Tx2
F o rw a rd
( B lo c k ) R x2 AN D
AN D
AN D t
o
AN D
( U n - B lo c k ) R x1
76 /
Lockout GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
BUS
77 /
Communication Channel GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions
Load Current
GUARD1 RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
NO Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2 RX NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission NO Permission
Communication
Channel 78 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions, channel failure
Load Current
Loss of Channel
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier
GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2
NO RX RX Loss of Guard
Block Timer Expired
Started Block Timer Expired
Started
Communication
Block DCUB Channel Block DCUB 79 /
until Guard OK until Guard OK GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, healthy
Local Relay – channel
Z2
Remote Relay – Z2
TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier
GUARD1
TRIP1 RXRX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
TRIP2 RXRX
Loss of Guard
Communication 80 /
Permission
Channel GE /
September 19, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, channel failure
Local Relay – Z2
Remote Relay – Z2
Loss of Channel
TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier
GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
NO RX RX
Loss of Guard Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started Communication 81 /
Duration Timer Expired
Started Channel GE /
September 19, 2010
Redundancy Considerations
• Redundant protection systems increase dependability of the
system:
Multiple sets of protection using same protection principle and
multiple pilot channels overcome individual element failure, or
Multiple sets of protection using different protection principles
and multiple channels protects against failure of one of the
protection methods.
• Security can be improved using “voting” schemes (i.e., 2-out-of-
3), potentially at expense of dependability.
• Redundancy of instrument transformers, battery systems, trip
coil circuits, etc. also need to be considered.
82 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
edundant Communications
End Zone
BUS
BUS
AND Channels: OR Channels:
POTT Less Reliable POTT More Reliable
Communication Channel 1
DCB Less Secure DCB More Secure
Communication Channel 2
More Channel Security More Channel Dependability
Loss of Channel 2 83 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Redundant Pilot Schemes
84 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Pilot Relay Desirable
Attributes
• Integrated functions:
weak infeed
echo
line pick-up (SOTF)
• Basic protection elements used to key the
communication:
distance elements
fast and sensitive ground (zero and
negative sequence) directional IOCs with
current, voltage, and/or dual polarization
85 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Pilot Relay Desirable
Attributes
Pre-programmed distance-based pilot schemes:
Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)
Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
Hybrid Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (HYB POTT)
Blocking scheme (DCB)
Unblocking scheme (DCUB)
86 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
• Breaker-and-a-half and ring bus terminals are
common designs for transmission lines.
• Standard practice has been to:
– sum currents from each circuit breaker
externally by paralleling the CTs
– use external sum as the line current for
protective relays
• For some close-in external fault events, poor
CT performance may lead to improper operation
of line relays.
87 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
88 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
89 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals • Direct measurement of
currents from both circuit
breakers allows the use of
supervisory logic to prevent
distance and directional
overcurrent elements from
operating incorrectly due to
CT errors during reverse
faults.
• Additional benefits of direct
measurement of currents:
independent BF
protection for each circuit
breaker
90 /
independent GE /
September 19, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
Supervisory logic should:
– not affect speed or sensitivity of protection elements
– correctly allow tripping during evolving external-to-internal
fault conditions
– determine direction of current flow through each breaker
independently:
• Both currents in FWD direction → internal fault
• One current FWD, one current REV → external fault
– allow tripping during all forward/internal faults
– block tripping during all reverse/external faults
– initially block tripping during evolving external-to-internal
faults until second fault appears in forward direction. Block is
then lifted to permit tripping.
91 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Single-pole Tripping
92 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Out-of-Step Condition
93 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Out-of-Step Relaying
Out-of-step blocking relays
– Operate in conjunction with mho tripping relays to prevent a
terminal from tripping during severe system swings & out-of-
step conditions.
– Prevent system from separating in an indiscriminate manner.
Out-of-step tripping relays
– Operate independently of other devices to detect out-of-step
condition during the first pole slip.
– Initiate tripping of breakers that separate system in order to
balance load with available generation on any isolated part
of the system.
94 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Out-of-Step Tripping The locus must
When the inner stay for some
characteristic is time between the
entered the outer and middle
element is ready characteristics
to trip
96 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Benefits of series capacitors:
• Reduction of overall XL of long lines
• Improvement of stability margins
• Ability to adjust line load levels
• Loss reduction
• Reduction of voltage drop during severe
disturbances
• Normally economical for line lengths > 200 miles
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus
97 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
SCs create unfavorable conditions for protective
relays and fault locators:
• Overreaching of distance elements
• Failure of distance element to pick up on low-
current faults
• Phase selection problems in single-pole tripping
applications
• Large fault location errors
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus
98 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Series Capacitor with MOV
99 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
100 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control
101 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults
102 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults
103 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for Internal Faults
104 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Protection Looking
Through a Transformer
• Phase distance elements can be set to see
beyond any 3-phase power transformer
• CTs & VTs may be located independently on
different sides of the transformer
• Given distance zone is defined by VT location
(not CTs)
• Reach setting is in Ω sec, and must take into
account location & ratios of VTs, CTs and
voltage ratio of the involved power transformer
105 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Transformer Group
Compensation
Depending on location of VTs and CTs, distance relays need to compensate for the
phase shift and magnitude change caused by the power transformer
106 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Setting Rules
• Transformer positive sequence impedance must be
included in reach setting only if transformer lies between VTs
and intended reach point
• Currents require compensation only if transformer located
between CTs and intended reach point
• Voltages require compensation only if transformer located
between VTs and intended reach point
• Compensation set based on transformer connection &
vector group as seen from CTs/VTs toward reach point
107 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Multiple reversible distance zones
> Individual per-zone, per-element characteristic:
– Dynamic voltage memory polarization
– Various characteristics, including mho, quad, lenticular
> Individual per-zone, per-element current supervision (FD)
> Multi-input phase comparator:
– additional ground directional supervision
– dynamic reactance supervision
> Transient overreach filtering/control
> Phase shift & magnitude compensation for distance
applications with power transformers
108 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> For improved flexibility, it is desirable to have the
following parameters settable on a per zone basis:
– Zero-sequence compensation
– Mutual zero-sequence compensation
– Maximum torque angle
– Blinders
– Directional angle
– Comparator limit angles (for lenticular
characteristic)
– Overcurrent supervision
109 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Additional functions
– Overcurrent elements (phase, neutral, ground,
directional, negative sequence, etc.)
– Breaker failure
– Automatic reclosing (single & three-pole)
– Sync check
– Under/over voltage elements
> Special functions
– Power swing detection
– Load encroachment
– Pilot schemes
110 /
GE /
September 19, 2010
111 /
GE /
September 19, 2010