Coordinate Transformations

2D Coordinate Systems
 2D Coordinate Systems

Before maps can be drawn, the positions, or co-ordinates, of the

mapped points must all be in one single co-ordinate system. Thus if
more than one co-ordinate systems are involved, they would need
to be converted. To do that, one usually retains one co-ordinate
system and converts all the positions which refer to all the other co-
ordinate systems, to make them refer to the required system. This
conversion is called a co-ordinate transformation.
 2D Coordinate Systems
A 2-D co-ordinate system consists of an origin, two axes that
intersect at that origin and either one or two scale factors.
Examples of 2-D co-ordinate systems include: the UTM co-
ordinate system, the co-ordinate systems on a digitizer, scanner
and aerial photograph.
 2D Coordinate Systems
ORIGIN
For the two dimensional system, the origin is defined by
specifying its two co-ordinates (X0, Y0) for example, one along the
first axis and the other along the second axis. These two co-
ordinates are arbitrary but they are often taken to be equal to zero.

origins
 2D Coordinate Systems
ORIENTATION
If the two axes are at right angles to each other, the system is
called an orthogonal co-ordinate system. In rare cases, the angle
between them is something other than 90 degrees. In this case the
system is called a non-orthogonal system. If the axes are
orthogonal, then defining the orientation of one axis would
automatically define that of the other. Therefore only one angle is
needed to define the orientation of a 2-D orthogonal co-ordinate
system. If, however, the axes are non-orthogonal, then defining
the orientation of one axis would not define the orientation of the
other since the angle between them is unknown. Therefore two
angles are needed to define the orientation of a 2-D non-
orthogonal co-ordinate system; the orientation of the first axis and
the angle between the axes.
2D Coordinate Systems

orientation
 2D Coordinate Systems
SCALE
If a unit distance has the same length along the X as well as the
Y axis, we say that the co-ordinate system has a homogeneous
scale. In that case, knowing the distance of one line defines the
scale of the system uniquely, no matter in which direction that
distance extends. If, however, a unit length along the X axis is
different from a unit length along the Y axis, then the 2-D system
possesses two scale factors; Sx and Sy for example.
 2D Coordinate Systems
The possible permutations for the definition of the 2-D co-ordinate
system are therefore
TYPE OF 2-D SYSTEM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS
REQUIRED

SYSTEM ORIGIN ORIENTA- SCALE

TION

2-d non-orthogonal non-homogeneous 2 2 2

scale

2-d non-orthogonal homogeneous 2 2 1

scale
2-d orthogonal non-homogeneous 2 1 2
scale
2-d orthogonal homogeneous scale 2 1 1
 2D Coordinate Systems

DEFINING THE PARAMETERS

ORIGIN
The origin is usually arbitrarily defined. For example, the origin of
a digitiser or a scanner is taken to be in one of its four corners and
that of an aerial photograph system is usually at the intersection of
the tic marks.
 2D Coordinate Systems
ORIENTATION
The orientation may be either arbitrary or physically
meaningful, A chain line and offsets is an example of an
arbitrary orientation in a co-ordinate system. In this situation,
the surveyor chooses one line, usually a boundary line to be an
axis of the system and then defines the other axis as being
orthogonal to it. A physically meaningful choice of orientation
may be the axis of a digitiser or a scanner co-ordinate system
being parallel to its two edges. The axes of the UTM system are
also attached in some way to the actual north-south direction on
the Earth surface.
 2D Coordinate Systems

SCALE
The scale factor must be defined or may be determined by
computing from known distances on the projection and the
corresponding distances on the ground.
 2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformation
2-D CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION
A 2-D conformal transformation is a scale homogeneous, orthogonal
transformation requiring 4 parameters – 1 scale, 1 orientation, 2
translations
Consider a line AB on 2 superimposed coordinate systems
The coordinates of the points A and B are known on both systems
EB
B Coordinate
NB R
system 2
A
Coordinate
system 1
 2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformation
The scale or units of measurement on the 2 systems are different.
To transform from system 1 to system 2 the scale must be found
AB1 ( EB1  E A1 ) 2  ( N B1  N A1 ) 2
s 
AB2 ( EB 2  E A 2 ) 2  ( N B 2  N A 2 ) 2
The scaled coordinates of the points in coordinate system 1 to
coordinate system 2 are:
E A  sE A
N A  sN A
E B  sE B
N B  sN B

Any point on system 1 can be scaled to system 2

 2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformation
The orientation of the 2 systems are different

EB Coordinate
B system 2
NB R
θ
A Coordinate
system 1

Consider point B
EB1  R sin 
N B1  R cos
 2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformation
On coordinate system 2 the same point B

Coordinate
B system 2
EB
NB
R
α θ
A Coordinate
system 1

EB 2  R sin(    )
N B 2  R cos(   )
 2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformation
EB 2  R sin(    )
N B 2  R cos(   )
Expanding using sum of sines and cosines
EB 2  R sin  cos   R cos sin 
N B 2  R cos cos   R sin  sin 
since
EB1  R sin 
N B1  R cos
EB 2  EB1 cos   N B1 sin 
N B 2  N B1 cos   EB1 sin 
 2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformation
The angles θ and α can be found by

E B1  E A1
  tan 1

N B1  N A1
EB 2  E A2
  tan 1

N B 2  N A2
 2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformation
A translation is required since the origin of the 2 systems are
different
Consider the situation where the origins are shifted
B
Coordinate
X0, Y0 (TE, TN) system 1
Coordinate
(0, 0) system 2
EB 2  EB1  TE
N B 2  N B1  TN
E A2  E A1  TE
N A2  N A1  TN
 2-D AFFINE
TRANSFORMATION
Unique and Least Squares Solutions
 2-D Affine Transformation
2-D Conformal transformations include 2 parameters for change in origin
(or translation), 1 parameter for change in orientation and 1 parameter for
change in scale.
2-D affine transformations include 2 parameters for change in origin, 2
parameters for change in scale and 2 parameters for change in
orientation.
The form of the 2-D conformal transformation equations was reduced to:
X  ax  by  c
Y  ay  bx  d
The form of the 2-D affine transformation equations is reduced to the
form:
X  a1 x  a2 y  a3
Y  b1 y  b2 x  b3
 2-D Affine Transformation
The usual application of the 2-D affine transformation equations (as
it was with the 2-D conformal equations) is when the parameters
are first determined by utilizing known co-located points and then
the equations with the known parameters included are applied to
points known on one system to transform them to the other system.

Three co-located points are required from which 6 equations can

be derived in order to determine the 6 parameters uniquely
 2-D Affine Transformation
For 3 co-located points, the equations are:

X A  a1 x A  a2 y A  a3
YA  b1 y A  b2 x A  b3
X B  a1 xB  a2 y B  a3
YB  b1 y B  b2 xB  b3
X C  a1 xC  a2 yC  a3
YC  b1 yC  b2 xC  b3
 2-D Affine Transformation
These equations are of the linear equation form:
n 1 = mL1
mA nX

Where there are m equations and n unknowns and m = n so that:

 xA yA 1 0 0 0  a1   X A 
0 0 0 yA xA    
1 a2   YA  

 xB yB 1 0 0 0  a3   X B 
     
0 0 0 yB xB 1  b1   YB 
 xC yC 1 0 0 0 b2   X C 
    
 0 0 0 yC xC 1  b3   YC 
 2-D Affine Transformation
The parameters can therefore be determined using matrix methods:
AX  L
1 1
A AX  A L
IX  A1 L
X  A1 L
And other points may be transformed using matrix methods:

AX  L
 2-D Affine Transformation
When there is redundant information or more than 3 points are known
on both systems, least squares may be used. For example if 4 points are
known on both systems:
1) From the measurement equations:
X A  a1 x A  a2 y A  a3
YA  b1 y A  b2 x A  b3
X B  a1 xB  a2 y B  a3
YB  b1 y B  b2 xB  b3
X C  a1 xC  a2 yC  a3
YC  b1 yC  b2 xC  b3
X D  a1 xD  a2 y D  a3
YD  b1 y D  b2 xD  b3
 2-D Affine Transformation
2) Form the observation equations:
a1 x A  a2 y A  a3  X A   XA
b1 y A  b2 x A  b3  YA  YA
a1 xB  a2 y B  a3  X B   XB
b1 y B  b2 xB  b3  YB  YB
a1 xC  a2 yC  a3  X C   XC
b1 yC  b2 xC  b3  YC  YC
a1 xD  a2 y D  a3  X D   XD
b1 y D  b2 xD  b3  YD  YD
 2-D Affine Transformation
3) Square the residuals and sum:

a1 x A  a2 y A  a3  X A   XA
b1 y A  b2 x A  b3  YA  YA
a1 xB  a2 y B  a3  X B   XB
b1 y B  b2 xB  b3  YB  YB
a1 xC  a2 yC  a3  X C   XC
b1 yC  b2 xC  b3  YC  YC
a1 xD  a2 y D  a3  X D   XD
b1 y D  b2 xD  b3  YD  YD

 1 A D 2 A D 3 A D  
2
( a x  a y  a  X )  (b y
1 A D  b x
2 A D  b3  Y A D ) 2
 2
 2-D Affine Transformation
4) Take partial differentials with respect to each unknown
and equate to zero:

 
2

0
a1
Normal equations

 
2

0
b3

5) Solve simultaneously to obtain unique values for the

unknowns
 2-D Affine Transformation
It was shown previously that the normal equations can be
formed directly using matrix methods:

( AT A) X  AT L
1 1
( A A) ( A A) X  ( A A) A L
T T T T

1 T
IX  ( A A) A L
T

X  ( AT A) 1 AT L
 2-D Affine Transformation
Example Wolf and Dewitt (2000)
Point Comparator Comparator Calibrated Calibrated
coord coord coords coords
x mm y mm X mm Y mm

Fiducial A 228.170 129.730 112.995 0.034

Fiducial B 2.100 129.520 -113.006 0.005
Fiducial C 115.005 242.625 0.003 112.993
Fiducial D 115.274 16.574 -0.012 -113.000
1 206.674 123.794
2 198.365 132.856
3 91.505 18.956
2-D Affine Transformation
 xA yA 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 yA xA 1  a1   X A 

 xB yB 1 0 0 0 a2   YA 
 
0 0 0 yB xB 1  a3   X B 
   
 xC yC 1 0 0 0  b1   YB 
 
0 0 0 yC xC 1 b2   X C 
x     
yD 1 0 0 0  b3   YC 
 D 
 0 0 0 yD xD 1
 2-D Affine Transformation

228.170 129.730 1 0 0 0 XA

 0  Y 
 0 0 129. 730 228 .170 1 
 1 a 
 A 
 2.100 129.520 1 0 0 0 a2   X B 
   
 0 0 0 129. 520 2.100 1  a 
 3   YB 
115.005 242.625 1   
0 0 0  b1   X C 
  Y 
 0 0 0 242.625 115.005 1 b2  
   C

115.274 16.574 1 0 0 0  b3   X D 
   
 0 0 0 16.574 115.274 1 YD 

AX = L
2-D Affine Transformation
228.17 129.73 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 129.73 228.17 1
2.1 129.52 1 0 0 0
A= 0 0 0 129.52 2.1 1
115.005 242.625 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 242.625 115.005 1
115.274 16.574 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 16.574 115.274 1
 Conformal Coordinate
Transformations
Conformal Transformation Example
 Conformal Transformation
Example
Four parameter co-ordinate transformation
The co-ordinates of two points A and B are listed in Table 1 for two
separate co-ordinate systems e-n (an outdated system) and E-N (the
revised system). A point C has co-ordinates on the old system of e =
15,362.88 ft. and n = 14622.70 ft.
•i) calculate the co-ordinates of point C on the E-N system

POINT e (ft.) n (ft) E (m) N (m)

A 16,719.24 12,164.51 538,712.09 203,683.60

B 18,975.69 13,192.83 539,151.00 204,298.92

 Conformal Transformation
Example
SCALE

ABto ( EB  E A ) 2  ( N B  N A ) 2
s 
AB from ( eB  e A ) 2  ( n B  n A ) 2

ABto (539151.00  538712.09) 2  (204298.92  203683.60) 2

s 
AB from (18975.69  16719.24) 2  (13192.83  12164.51) 2

= 0.30479 or 0.3048 (the factor used to convert feet to

meters)
 Conformal Transformation
Example
eA  se A
nA  sn A
eB  seB
nB  sn B

eA  0.3048 16719.24  5096.024

nA  0.3048 12164.51  3707.743
eB  0.3048 18975.69  5783.790
nB  0.3048 13192.83  4021.175
 Conformal Transformation
Example
ROTATION
EB  E A θ A System 2
  tan 1

NB  N A
eB  e A α
    tan 1

nB  n A
System 1
539151.00  538712.09
  tan1
 35.500
204298.92  203683.60
1 18975.69  16719.24
    tan  35.500  65.500  30
13192.83  12164.51
 Conformal Transformation
Example
eB  eB cos   nB sin 
nB  nB cos   eB sin 



eB  5783.790 cos( 30 )  4021.175 sin( 30 )  2998.322
 



nB  4021.175 cos(30 )  5783.790 sin( 30 )  6374.335
 



eA  5096.024 cos( 30 )  3707.743 sin( 30 )  2559.415
 



nA  3707.743 cos( 30 )  5096.024 sin( 30 )  5759.012
 
 Conformal Transformation
Example
TRANSLATION
EB  eB  TE
N B  nB  TN
E A  eA  TE
N A  nA  TN
539151.00  2998.322  TE  536152.68
538712.09  2559.415  TE  536152.68
203683.60  5759.012  TN  197924.59
204298.92  6374.335  TN  197924.59
 Conformal Transformation
Example
Now that the parameters are known, other coordinated points such as
point C can be transformed:

e = 15,362.88 ft. and n = 14622.70 ft.

C scaled coords:
eC  seC
nC  snC

nC  0.3048 14622.70  4456.99

eC  0.3048 15362.88  4682.61
 Conformal Transformation
Example
C rotated coords:

eC  eC cos   nC sin 

nC  nC cos   eC sin 

eC  4682.61cos(30 )  4456.99 sin( 30 )  1826.76

nC  4456.99 cos( 30 )  4682.61sin( 30 )  6201.17
 Conformal Transformation
Example
C translated coords:

EC  eC  TE
N C  nC  TN

EC  1826.76  536152.68  537979.44

N C  6201.17  197924.59  204125.76
2-D Conformal Coordinate
Transformations
Computerized Methods
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations
To computerize the transformation process the equations must
be standardized and combined:
Moving from system 1 to system 2 the scale equations are
substituted into the rotation equations:
eA1  se A1
nA1  sn A1
eB1  seB1
nB1  sn B1
eA1  eA1 cos   nA1 sin  eA1  se A1 cos   sn A1 sin 
nA1  eA1 sin   nA1 cos  nA1  se A1 sin   sn A1 cos 
eB1  eB1 cos   nB1 sin  eB1  seB1 cos   snB1 sin 
nB1  eB1 sin   nB1 cos  nB1  seB1 sin   snB1 cos 
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations
The angle is standardized as system 1-system 2 and the
translation parameters are added on to complete the
transformation equations:

E A2  se A1 cos   sn A1 sin   TE
N A2  se A1 sin   sn A1 cos   TN
EB 2  seB1 cos   snB1 sin   TE
N B 2  seB1 sin   snB1 cos   TN
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations
Now substitute:
a  s cos 
b  s sin 
To get:
E A2  ae A1  bn A1  TE
N A2  an A1  be A1  TN
EB 2  aeB1  bnB1  TE
N B 2  anB1  beB1  TN
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations
The scale and rotation need not be determined but if need be:

s  a 2  b2
b
  tan  
1

a
a
s
cos 
b
s
sin 
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations - example
From the previous example:
E A2  ae A1  bn A1  TE
N A2  an A1  be A1  TN
EB 2  aeB1  bnB1  TE
N B 2  anB1  beB1  TN
538712.09  a(16719.24)  b(12164.51)  TE
203683.60  a(12164.51)  b(16719.24)  TN
539151.00  a(18975.69)  b(13192.83)  TE
204298.92  a(13192.83)  b(18975.69)  TN
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations - example
Solving simultaneously:
a  0.26396521
b  0.15239837
TE  536152.54
TN  197924.61
Substituting:
s  a 2  b 2  0.3048
b
  tan    30 0000
1

a
a
s  0.3048
cos 
b
s  0.3048
sin 
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations - example
The equations may be expressed as matrices:
E A2  se A1 cos   sn A1 sin   TE
N A2  se A1 sin   sn A1 cos   TN
EB 2  seB1 cos   snB1 sin   TE
N B 2  seB1 sin   snB1 cos   TN

 E A2  cos   sin    s 0  eA1  TE 

 N    sin        
cos   0 s  nA1  TN 
 A2  

For each pair of equations

 Computerized Methods in
Transformations - example
or
E A2  ae A1  bn A1  TE
N A2  an A1  be A1  TN
EB 2  aeB1  bnB1  TE
N B 2  anB1  beB1  TN
For each pair of equations

 E A2  a  b  eA1  TE 
 N   b a  n   T 
 A2     A1   N 

2x1 2x2 2x1 2x1

 Computerized Methods in
Transformations - example
The individual equations can also be put into the matrix format for
solution via inversion:
AX = L
So that:
X = A-1 L
X or the unknowns can be solved using a spreadsheet and then the
parameters can be applied to other points to be transformed
 eA1  n A1 1 0  a   E A 2 
n
 A1 eA1 0 1  b   N A2 

 eB1  nB1 1 0 TE   EB 2 
    
nB1 eB1 0 1 TN   N B 2 
 Computerized Methods in
Transformations – example
Using the previous example
16719.24 -12164.5 1 0 538712.1
A= 12164.51 16719.24 0 1L= 203683.6
18975.69 -13192.8 1 0 539151
13192.83 18975.69 0 1 204298.9

-0.00037 -0.00017 0.000367 0.000167

A-1 = 0.000167 -0.00037 -0.00017 0.000367
9.169632 -1.66789 -8.16963 1.667892
1.667892 9.169632 -1.66789 -8.16963

0.263965
A-1 L=X= 0.152398
536152.6
197924.6

AC = 15362.88 -14622.7 1 0
14622.7 15362.88 0 1

AC X = 537979.4
204125.8
Least Squares in Transformations

Introduction
 Least Squares in Transformations

The observation equation method of Least Squares may be used

in the computation of the transformation parameters
More than 2 co-located points (points coordinated on both
systems) must be known to perform Least Squares
Least Squares minimizes the sum of the squares of the residuals
resulting in the best estimate of the value of the unknowns
 Least Squares in Transformations
Simple example of least squares method (Wolf and Dewitt 2000)
Given the following measurement equations
x  y  3.0...............(1)
x+y=3.0
x  1.5....................(2) x=1.5 y=1.4
y  1.4....................(3)
m = number of observations = 3
n=number of unknowns = (x and y) = 2
Solving equations (1) and (2) gives x = 1.5 and y =1.5
Solving equations (2) and (3) gives x = 1.5 and y = 1.4
Solving equations (1) and (3) gives x = 1.6 and y = 1.4
 Least Squares in Transformations
The measurements therefore contain errors so these can be
included in the equations

x  y  3.0  1
Observation equations
x  1.5   2
y  1.4  3
There are many values that the residuals may take so that the
same values are obtained for x and y no matter which equations
are used to solve for them
For example:
1  0, 2  0,3  0.1  x  1.5, y  1.5
or 1  0.1,2  0,3  0  x  1.5, y  1.4
 Least Squares in Transformations
However the values of the residuals which minimize the sum of
the square of the residuals are the most probable values for the
residuals.
To obtain these values the following procedure is adopted
1) Square the residuals
( x  y  3.0)  1
2 2

( x  1.5)   2
2 2

( y  1.4)  3
2 2
 Least Squares in Transformations
2) Sum the squared residuals together
m


i 1
2
 ( x  y  3.0)  ( x  1.5)  ( y  1.4)
2 2 2

3) Minimize the sum of the square of the residuals by taking

partial derivatives with respect to each unknown and
setting them equal to zero

 
2

 0  2( x  y  3.0)  2( x  1.5)
x Normal
 
2 Equations
 0  2( x  y  3.0)  2( y  1.4)
y
 Least Squares in Transformations
The simplified normal equations are:
2 x  y  4.5
x  2 y  4.4

There are now the same number of normal equations as there are
unknowns leading to a unique solution for the unknowns when
solved

x  1.533
y  1.433
 Least Squares in Transformations
These values may be plugged back into the observation
equations to determine the residuals
1  1.533  1.433  3.000  0.033
 2  1.533  1.500  0.033
3  1.433  1.400  0.033
The sum of the squares of the residuals for the example solutions
may be compared with the sum of the squares of the residuals
derived by the least squares method

1  0, 2  0,3  0.1   2  0.01

1  0.1, 2  0,3  0   2  0.01
1  0.033, 2  0.033,3  0.033   2  0.001
 Least Squares in Transformations
The process for forming normal equations is lengthy and time
consuming but a systematic procedure can be performed
If there are m observation equations in n unknowns:

a11x1  a12 x2  a13 x3    a1n xn  L1  1

a21x1  a22 x2  a23 x3    a2 n xn  L2   2

am1 x1  am 2 x2  am3 x3    amn xn  Lm   m
 Least Squares in Transformations
The residuals are squared and summed
Partial derivatives are taken with respect to each unknown
n normal equations are formed
Simplifying the normal equations by reducing and factoring
results in the standardized format as follows:
m m m m m

 (a a
i 1
i1 i1 ) x1   (ai1ai 2 ) x2   (ai1ai 3 ) x3     (ai1ain ) xn   (ai1 Li )
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
m m m m m

 (a
i 1
a ) x1   (ai 2 ai 2 ) x2   (ai 2 ai 3 ) x3     (ai 2 ain ) xn   (ai 2 Li )
i 2 i1
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1


m m m m m

 (a
i 1
a ) x1   (ain ai 2 ) x2   (ain ai 3 ) x3     (ain ain ) xn   (ain Li )
in i1
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
 Least Squares in Transformations
The coefficients may be computed and set up in a table to
facilitate the construction of the normal equations
Example from the previous problem
x  y  3.0  1
Observation equations
x  1.5   2
y  1.4  3

1 1  L1  1 
1 0  x    L    
  y  2   2 
0 1    L3  3 

A=3x2 X=2x1 L=3x1 V=3x1

 Least Squares in Transformations

Equation
number (i) ai1 ai 2 Li ai1ai1 ai1ai 2 ai 2 ai 2 ai1 Li ai 2 Li
1 1 1 3.0 1 1 1 3.0 3.0

2 1 0 1.5 1 0 0 1.5 0.0

3 0 1 1.4 0 0 1 0.0 1.4

  2   1   2   4.5   4.4
 Least Squares in Transformations
The normal equations in the standardized format are therefore:
m m m

 (a
i 1
a ) x1   (ai1ai 2 ) x2   (ai1 Li )
i1 i1
i 1 i 1
m m m

 (a
i 1
a ) x1   (ai 2 ai 2 ) x2   (ai 2 Li )
i 2 i1
i 1 i 1

Substituting from the table gives:

2 x  y  4.5
x  2 y  4.4
The normal equations may now be solved to determine the
unknowns
 Least Squares in Transformations
The matrix method proves to be simpler for solving the equations
The observation equations are represented generally as:

m A n X  m L  mV
n 1 1 1

The normal equations as obtained in the standardized method are

equivalent to:

( A A) X  A L
T T

So that AT A is the matrix of normal equation coefficients of

the unknowns
 Least Squares in Transformations
( A A) X  A L
T T

Premultiply both sides by the inverse of the AT A matrix to result

in:
( AT A)1 ( AT A) X  ( AT A)1 AT L
Reducing :
1
IX  ( A A) A L
T T

1
X  ( A A) A L
T T

The unknowns can then be simply determined

 Least Squares in Transformations
Example from previous problem:
 a11 a12   L1  1 
a   x    
 21 a22   y    L2    2  Observation equations
a31 a32     L3  3 

1 1 3.0 1 
1 0  x   1.5     Observation equations
  y    2 
0 1   1.4  3 

1 1
1 1 0   2 1 
A A
T
 1 0    
1 0 1 0 1 1 2
 
 Least Squares in Transformations
 0.6667  0.3333
1
( A A)  
T

 0.3333 0.6667 
3.0
1 1 0   4.5
( A L)  
T
 1.5    
1 0 1 1.4  4.4
 

1  0.6667  0.3333 4.5 1.533

X  ( A A) ( A L)  
T T
    
  0.3333 0.6667   
4.4 1.433
Least Squares in Transformations

1 1 3.0  0.033
  1.533    
V  AX  L  1 0    1.5    0.033 
0 1 1.433
1.4   0.033 
 Least Squares in Transformations
The Least Squares method applied to the general 2-D conformal
coordinate transformation
For each co-located point of m observed points two equations are
obtained
ax1  by1  TE  E1
ay1  bx1  TN  N1

axm  bym  TE  Em
aym  bxm  TN  N m

The unknowns are a, b, TE and TN

 Least Squares in Transformations
Observation equations can be formed
ax1  by1  TE  E1   E1
ay1  bx1  TN  N1   N 1

axm  bym  TE  Em   Em
aym  bxm  TN  N m   Nm
Which are of the form:

2m A 4 X  2 m L  2 mV
4 1 1 1

A is the matrix of coefficients of the unknown transformation parameters

or the coordinates on one system, X is the matrix of the unknown
transformation parameters, L is the matrix of observations which are the
control coordinates and V is the matrix of residuals or measurement
errors
 Least Squares in Transformations
 x1  y1 1 0 a
y  b
 1 x1 0 1 X 1
  
A 4
 4
TE 
2m
 
   
 ym xm 0 1 TN 

 E1   1E 
N   
L1
  1  1N 
2m
   V 1

2m
  
   
Nm   mN 
 Least Squares in Transformations
We can go directly to the normal equations to solve for the
unknowns knowing that the normal equations are simply:

( A A) X  A L
T T

Therefore:
1
X  ( A A) A L
T T
 Least Squares in Transformations
– example (Wolf and Ghilani 1997)
Given the co-located points A, B and C, find the best estimate of the
transformation parameters and then transform points 1, 2, 3 and 4

Point Easting Northing X Y

A 1049422.40 51089.20 121.622 -128.066
B 1049413.95 49659.30 141.228 187.718
C 1049244.95 49884.95 175.802 135.728
1 174.148 -120.262
2 513.520 -192.130
3 754.444 -67.706
4 972.788 120.994
 121.622 128.066 1 0 1049422
-128.066 121.622 0 1 51089.2
A= 141.228 -187.718 1 0 L= 1049414
187.718 141.228 0 1 49659.3
175.802 -135.728 1 0 1049245
135.728 175.802 0 1 49884.95

121.622 -128.066 141.228 187.718 175.802 135.728

T
A= 128.066 121.622 -187.718 141.228 -135.728 175.802
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1

135704.6399 0 438.652 195.38

ATA = 0 135704.6 -195.38 438.652
438.652 -195.38 3 0
195.38 438.652 0 3

1.69948E-05 8.18E-22 -0.00248 -0.00111

T -1
(A A) = -4.09059E-22 1.7E-05 0.001107 -0.00248
-0.002484929 0.001107 0.768756 1.31E-16
-0.001106812 -0.00248 6.56E-17 0.768756

ATL = 469848784.6
-183013749.1
3148081.3
150633.45

-4.512493613
T -1 T
(A A) A L = -0.253714497
1050003.715
50542.13112
 -4.51249
(ATA)-1ATL = -0.25371
1050004
50542.13

174.148 120.262 1 0
-120.262 174.148 0 1
A2 = 513.52 192.13 1 0
-192.13 513.52 0 1
754.444 67.706 1 0
-67.706 754.444 0 1
972.788 -120.994 1 0
120.994 972.788 0 1

1049187
A2X = 51040.63
1047638
51278.83
1046582
50656.24
1045645
49749.34