What is light ?

Light is electromagnetic
radiation of a specific
wavelength and frequency that
is detectable by the human eye.
 What is a wavelength?

A wavelength is the distance

between the points where a
wave repeats itself.
 What is frequency ?

Frequency is the number of

wavelengths that pass in a unit
of time, which in this case is one
second.
We call this unit of
measurement Hertz.
 What is amplitude ?

Amplitude is the height of the

wave.
 EM Spectrum
4 x 10-11 4 x 10-7 4 x 10-3 4 x 101 4 x 105 Energy (eV)

3 x 104 3 3 x 10-4 3 x 10-8 3 x 10-12 Wavelength (m)

Ultra-
Long waves Radio waves Infrared violet X-rays Gamma rays

102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 Frequency (Hz)

Visible Light
 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Light travels in STRAIGHT lines

Laser
Light travels VERY FAST – around 300,000
kilometres per second.

At this speed it can go

around the world 8 times
in one second.
Light travels MUCH FASTER than sound.

For example:

1) Thunder and lightning

start at the same time,
but we will see the
lightning first.

2) When a starting pistol is

fired we see the smoke
first and then hear the
bang.
We see things because they REFLECT light into our eyes

Homework
Shadows are places where light is BLOCKED

Rays of light
Properties of Light Summary:
1) Light travels in straight lines
2) Light travels much faster than sound
3) We see things because they reflect light into
our eyes
4) Shadows are formed when light is blocked by
an object
 LIGHT AS A PARTICLE
• A photon is like a particle, but it has no mass
• Think of a photon as a grain of sand.
• We see so many photons at the same time it’s
like seeing all the sand on a beach; we don’t
notice the single grains
• When light hits film in a film camera, it acts
like photons.
 LIGHT AS A WAVE
• But sometimes light acts like a wave
• A wave has a wavelength, a speed and a frequency
• We’ll learn more about wave behavior when we talk
about polarization
• All light travels same speed (in vacuum)
• The energy goes up as frequency goes up
• Color depends on frequency
• Wavelength gets shorter as frequency goes up
 SPEED OF LIGHT
• Light travels at 300,000,000 meters/second.
• It takes 8 minutes for a light wave (or a
photon) to travel from the sun to the earth.
• We see the moon because it reflects the sun’s
light.
• It takes 1 second for light reflected off the
moon to reach the earth.
 LIGHT AND MATTER
• When light hits something (air, glass, a green wall, a
black dress), it may be:
• Transmitted (if the thing is transparent)
• Reflected or scattered (off mirror or raindrops)
• Absorbed (off a black velvet dress)
• Often it’s some combination. Take a simple piece of
paper: you can see some light through, white
reflects, black print absorbs.
 The waves can pass through the object

The waves can be reflected off the object.

The waves can be scattered off the object.

The waves can be absorbed by the object.

The waves can be refracted through the object.

The basic scientific principle behind
a laser was first put forward by
Dr. Charles H.townes in 1954. The
efforts of several scientists laser led
to the development of the first laser
called pulsed laser in 1960.
 1916, Einstein predicted the stimulated emission.
 1954,Townes and co-workers developed a Microwave
Amplifier by Stimulated Emission of Radiation(maser)
using ammonia, NH3.
C.H.TOWNES A.L.SCHAWLOW
 1958, A.L.Schawlow and C.H.Townes showed that the
maser principle could be extended into the visible
region .

 In 1958 A.L.Schalow and C.H. Townes published the

first theoretical work concerning laser operational
principles.

 They expanded their research from microwave

frequencies operated devices (masers) to optical
frequency operated devices (lasers).

 Both scientists awarded with the Nobel prize for their

work.
 T.H.MAIMAN
RUBY LASER

 1960, T.H.Maiman built the first laser using ruby as the

active medium.
 From then on, laser development was nothing short of
miraculous, giving optics new impetus and wide publicity.
 INTRODUCTION
 LASER stands for Light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation.

 Laser is a device which emits a powerful,

monochromatic collimated beam of light.

 The emitted light waves are coherent in

nature.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER

Directionality
Monochromatic
Highly intense
Coherence
 Directionality:
 Ordinary light spreads in all directions and its angular
spread is 1m/m. But it is found that laser is highly
directional and is angular spread is 1mm/m.

 For example, the laser beam can be focused to very

long distance with a few divergence or angular spread.

 Divergence or angular spread is given by,

where d1 , d2 are any two distances for the laser source

emitted and r1, r2 are the radii of the beam spots at a
distance d1 and d2 respectively.
Monochromatic:
 Laser beam is highly monochromatic, the wavelength
is single.
 In ordinary light like mercury vapor lamp, many
wavelengths of light are emitted.
 Highly Intense:
 An ordinary light spreads in all directions, the
intensity reaching the target is very less.

 But in the case of laser, due to high

directionality, the intensity of laser beam reaching
the target is of high intense beam.

 For example, 1 mill watt power of He-Ne laser

appears to be brighter than the sunlight.
Coherence:
 It is an important characteristic of laser beam.

 In lasers the wave trains of same frequency are

in phase.

 The radiation given out is in mutual agreement not

only in phase but also in the direction of emission
and polarization.

 Thus it is a coherent beam. Due to high

coherence it results in an extremely high power.
Difference between Ordinary light
and Laser light:
 MECHANISMS OF LIGHT EMISSION

Consider an atom or molecule with two energy levels

E1 and E2
E2
Molecule in energy level E1

E1

A direct radiative transition between these states

would be associated with a photon of frequency ν:
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1.
 When light is absorbed by the atoms or molecules, it goes
from the lower energy level (E1) to the higher energy level
(E2).

 And during the transition from higher energy level (E2) to

lower energy level (E1) the light is emitted from the atoms or
molecules.

 Let us consider an atom exposed to light photons of

energy, THREE distinct processes take place.

Induced Absorption
Spontaneous emission
Stimulated Emission
Induced Absorption:
Molecule in E1 absorbs a photon and is excited to E2

E2
hν

E1

One photon of energy hν

 An atom in the energy state E1 can absorbs incident
photon and go to the excited state with energy E2,
provided the incident photon energy hⱱ equals the
energy difference (E1- E2).

 This process is called Absorption (or) Stimulated

Absorption.

 Actually, the number of excited particles in a system is

less than the number of non-excited particles.

 The time during which a particle can stay in the ground

state for a limited time called life time.
The life time of the excited atom is order of 10-8 sec.

Hence, there exist such excited states in which the life-

time is greater than 10-8 sec.

These states are known as Meta-stable state.

After excitation, atoms return to ground state by

emitting a photon by following TWO methods:

Spontaneous Emission
Stimulated Emission
Spontaneous Emission:
Molecule in E2 decays spontaneously to E1 by emitting
a photon in an arbitrary direction.
E2
hν

E1

One photon of energy hν (arbitrary phase & direction)

Stimulated Emission:
A photon of appropriate frequency induces the
transition from Excited state to Ground state.

E2
hν
hν

E1

One photon of energy hν and the new photon has the

same frequency, phase, and direction as the original
photon.
 In stimulated emission, an incoming photon with
energy hʋ stimulates the emission process by inducing
electrons in E2 to transit down to E1.

 While moving down to E1, photon of the same energy

hⱱ will be emitted.

 Resulting in two photons coming out of the system.

 Photons are amplified-one incoming photon resulting in

two photons coming out.
 MECHANISMS OF LIGHT EMISSION

E2 E2 E2
hu hu
hu hu In
Out

hu

E1 E1 E1

(a) Absorption (b)Spontaneous emission (c) Stimulated emission

Difference between Stimulated
Emission & Spontaneous Emission:
 POPULATION INVERSION
 Population Inversion creates a situation in which
the number of atoms in higher energy state is more
than that in the lower energy state.

 Usually at thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms

N2 i.e., the population of atoms at higher energy state is
much lesser than the population of the atoms at lower
energy state N1 that is N1 > N2 .
 The Phenomenon of making N2 > N1 is known as
Population Inversion.
 CONDITIONS OF
POPULATION INVERSION
 There must be at least two energy levels E2 > E1.

 There must be a source to supply the energy to the

medium.

 The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited

state.
 GENERATING POPULATION INVERSION
E3 E4
rapid relaxation
E2 rapid relaxation
E3
pump
pump lasing E2 pump lasing
lasing E2
E1 rapid relaxation
E1 E1
Two-level system Three-level system Four-level system

A two-level system cannot produce a population inversion.

Only E1 is populated at thermal equilibrium (E2 >> E1).

A three-level system must be pumped harder than a four-level

system – that is, more molecules must be pumped into the
excited level to produce lasing.
 PRINCIPLE OF LASER ACTION
Principle:
Due to stimulated emission the photons
multiply in each step giving rise to an intense beam
of photons that are coherent and moving in the same
direction. Hence the light is amplified by Stimulated
Emission of the Radiation termed LASER.

Active Medium:
A medium in which population inversion can be
achieved is known as active medium.
Active Center:
The material in which the atoms are raised to the
excited state to achieve Population Inversion is called
Active Center.
Optical resonator:

 An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting

surfaces in which one is fully reflecting (R1) and the other
is partially reflecting (R2).

 The active material is placed in between these two

reflecting surfaces.

 The photons generated due to transitions between the

energy states of active material are bounced back and
forth between two reflecting surfaces.
 This will induce more and more stimulated transition
leading to laser action.
 PUMPING ACTION
 The process to achieve the population inversion in
the medium is called Pumping action.

 It is essential requirement for producing a laser beam.

Methods of pumping action:

The methods commonly used for pumping action
are:
1. Optical pumping (Excitation by Photons)
2. Electrical discharge method(Excitation by electrons)
3. Direct conversion
4. In elastic atom – atom collision between atoms
 Optical Pumping:
 When the atoms are exposed to light radiations
energy hν, atoms in the lower energy state absorb these
radiations and they go to the excited state.

This method is called Optical pumping.

 It is used in solid state lasers like ruby laser and Nd-YAG
laser.

 In ruby laser, xenon flash lamp is used as pumping

source.
Electrical Discharge Method:
 In this method, the electrons are produced in an
electrical discharge tube.

 These electrons are accelerated to high velocities

by a strong electrical field.

These accelerated electrons collide with the gas atoms.

 By the process, energy from the electrons is
transferred to gas atoms.

 Some atoms gain energy and they go to the excited

state.

 This results in population inversion.

 This method is called Electrical discharge method.

 It is represented by the equation

Where, A = gas atom in the ground state

A*= same gas atom in the excited state
e*= Electrons with higher Kinetic energy
e = Same electron with lesser energy.

 This method of pumping is used in gas lasers like argon

and CO2 Laser.
Direct Conversion:
 In this method, due to electrical energy applied in
direct band gap semiconductor like Ga As,
recombination of electrons and holes takes place.

 During the recombination process, the electrical

energy is directly is converted into light energy.
In Elastic Atom-Atom Collision:
 In this method, a combination of two gases (Say A
and B are used).

 The excited states of A and B nearly coincides in

energy.

 In the first step during the electrical discharge atoms

of gas A are excited to their higher energy state A*(meta-
stable state) due to collision with the electrons .
 Now A* atoms at higher energy state collide with b
atoms in the lower state.

 Due to inelastic atom - atom collision B atoms gain

energy and they are excited to a higher state B*.

 Hence, A atoms lose energy and return to lower state.

 TYPES OF LASER
Based on the type of active medium, Laser systems are
broadly classified into the following categories:
TYPES OF LASERS:
 Nd-YAG LASER
 Nd-YAG laser is a neodymium based laser.

 Nd lasers are the most popular solid state lasers.

 Nd stands for Neodymium (rare earth element) and

YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminum Garnet ( Y3Al5 O12).

 Host media can be YAG, YLF, Vanadate or Glass.

 It is a four level solid state laser.

 Principle:
 The active medium Nd-YAG rod is optically pumped
by Krypton flash tubes.

 The Neodymium ions (Nd3+) are raised to excited

levels.

 During the transition from meta stable state to ground

state, a laser beam of wavelength 1.064μm is emitted.
 Nd (Neodymium) – YAG (Yttrium Aluminium Garnet) Laser

M1– 100% M2 – partial

reflector mirror reflector mirror
Laser Rod

Flash Tube

Capacitor

Power Supply Resistor

Construction:
The construction of Nd-YAG laser is as shown in the
figure.
 A small amount of Yttrium ions (Y3+) is replaced by
Neodymium (Nd3+) in the active element of Nd-YAG
crystal.

 This active element is cut into a cylindrical rod.

 The ends of the cylindrical rod are highly polished and

they are made optically flat and parallel.
This cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a pumping source
(flash tube) are placed inside a highly (reflecting) elliptical
reflector cavity.

 The optical resonator is formed by using two

external reflecting mirrors.

 One mirror (M1) is 100% reflecting while the other

mirror (M2) is partially reflecting.
Energy Level Diagram of Nd-YAG Laser:
Working:
 When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the
absorption of light radiation of wavelength 0.73μm and
0.8μm, the Neodymium(Nd3+) atoms are raised from
ground level E0 to upper levels E3 and E4 (Pump bands).

 The Neodymium ions atoms make a transition from

these energy levels E2 by non-radiative transition. E2 is a
meta-stable state.

 The Neodymium ions are collected in the level E2

and the population inversion is achieved between E2 and
E1.
 An ion makes a spontaneous transition from E2 to
E1, emitting a photon of energy hν.

 This emitted photon will trigger a chain of

stimulated photons between E2 and E1.

 The photons thus generated travel back and forth

between two mirrors and grow in strength.

 After some time, the photon number multiplies more

rapidly.

 After enough strength is attained (condition for

laser being satisfied), an intense laser light of
wavelength 1.06μm is emitted through the partial
reflector. It corresponds to the transition from E2 to E1.
Characteristics:
Type : Doped Insulator Laser
Active Medium : Yttrium Aluminum Garnet

Active Centre : Neodymium

Pumping Method : Optical Pumping

Pumping Source : Xenon Flash Pump

Optical Resonator : Ends of rods silver coated

Two mirrors partially and totally reflecting
Power Output : 20 KW

Nature of Output : Pulsed

Wavelength Emitted : 1.064 μm

Advantages & Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 It has high energy output.
 It has very high repetition rate operation.
 It is much easy to achieve population inversion.

Disadvantages:
 The electron energy level structure of Nd3+ in YAG is
complicated.
Applications:
 It finds many applications in range finders and
illuminators.

 It is widely used in engineering applications such as

resistor, trimming scribing, micro machining operations as
well as welding, drilling etc.
 It finds many medical applications such as
endoscopy, urology, neurosurgery, ENT, gynecology,
dermatology, dental surgery and general surgery.
 CARBON-DIOXIDE GAS LASER
 In a molecular gas laser, laser action is achieved by
transitions between vibrational and rotational levels of
molecules.

 It was the first molecular gas laser developed by

Indian born American scientist Prof.C.K.N.Pillai.

In CO2 molecular gas laser, transition takes place

between the vibrational states of Carbon-dioxide
molecules.
 It is a four level laser and it operates at 10.6 μm in the
far IR region.

 It is a very efficient laser.

 Its construction is simple and the output of this laser is

continuous.
Energy states of CO2 molecules:
 A carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the
center with two oxygen atoms attached,
one at both sides.

 Such a molecule exhibits THREE independent modes

of vibrations. They are

a) Symmetric stretching mode.

b) Bending mode
c) Asymmetric stretching mode.
Symmetric stretching mode:
In this mode of vibration, carbon atoms are at
rest and both oxygen atoms vibrate simultaneously
along the axis of the molecule departing or
approaching the fixed carbon atoms.
Bending mode:
In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and
carbon atoms vibrate perpendicular to molecular axis.
Asymmetric stretching mode:
In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and
carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically, i.e., oxygen
atoms move in one direction while carbon atoms in the
other direction.
Principle:
 The transition between the rotational and vibrational
energy levels lends to the construction of a molecular gas
laser.

 The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2, N2 and He.

 Nitrogen atoms are raised to the excited state which in

turn deliver energy to the CO2 atoms whose energy
levels are close to it.

 The Laser Transition takes place between the vibrational

energy levels of CO2 atoms and the laser beam is emitted.
Diagram:
Construction:
 It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the
diameter.

 This discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of

CO2 (active medium), helium and nitrogen with suitable
partial pressures.

 The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a

D.C power supply.
 The ends of the discharge tube are fitted with NaCl
Brewster windows so that the laser light generated will be
polarized

 Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the

other partially form an optical resonator.
Energy Level Diagram:
Working:
 When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the
electrons collide with nitrogen molecules and they are
raised to excited states.

 This process is represented by the equation.

N2 + e*= N2*+ e

N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state

e* = electron with kinetic energy
N2* = nitrogen molecule in excited state
e = same electron with lesser energy
 Now N2 molecules in the excited state collide with
CO2 atoms in ground state and excite to higher
electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.
 This process is represented by the equation

N2* + CO2 = CO2*+ N2

N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state.

CO2 = Carbon dioxide atoms in ground state
CO2*= Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state.

 Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to

the E5 level of CO2 atom, population in E5 level
increases.
 As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the
spontaneously emitted photon will trigger laser action in
the tube.

 There are TWO types of laser transition possible.

I. Transition E5 to E4
 This will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6μm

II. Transition E5 to E3
 This transition will produce a laser beam of
wavelength 9.6μm. Normally 10.6μm transition is more
intense than 9.6μm transition.

 The power output from this laser is 10kW.

Characteristics:
Type : Molecular gas laser

Active Medium : Mixture of CO2, N2, He or H2O vapour

Active Centre : CO2

Pumping Method : Electric Discharge Method

Optical Resonator : Gold mirror or Si mirror coated with Al

Power Output : 10 kW

Nature of Output : Continuous or pulsed

Wavelength Emitted : 9.6 μm or 10.6 μm

 Advantages:
1. The construction of CO2 laser is simple.

2. The output of this laser is continuous.

3. It has high efficiency.

4. It has very high output power.

5. The output power can be increased by extending the

length of the gas tube.
 Disadvantages:
1. The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide
will have some effect on laser action

2. The operating temperature plays an important role in

determining the output power of laser.

3. The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates.

4. Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is

invisible (infra red region) to our eyes.
 Applications:
 High power CO2 laser finds applications in material processing,
welding, drilling, cutting soldering etc.

 The low atmospheric attenuation 10.6μm makes CO2 laser

suitable for open air communication.

 It is used for remote sensing

 It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases.

 It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.

 It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless operations.

 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER
 Laser action can also be produced semiconductors.

 The most compact of all the lasers in semiconductor

diode laser.

 It is also called injection laser.

 Types of Semiconductor diode laser. There are TWO

types of semiconductor diode lasers.

1. Homo junction laser.

2. Hetero- Junction laser.
Homo – Junction laser:
If a p-n junction is formed in a single crystalline
material, then it is called as homo-junction laser.

Example: single crystal of gallium Arsenide (Ga-As)

Hetero- Junction laser:

If p-n junction is formed with different
semiconducting materials, then it is known as Hetero-
Junction laser. It is also called modern laser diode.

Example: Hetero- Junction laser can be formed between

Ga-As and Ga-Al-As.
 HOMO JUNCTION DIODE LASER
Definition:
 It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This
diode emits laser light when it is forward biased.

Principle:
 When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the
electrons from n–region and the holes from the p-region
cross the junction and recombine with each other.

During the recombination process, the light radiation

(photons) is released from a certain specified direct
band gap semiconductors like Ga-As.
 The photon emitted during recombination stimulates
other electrons and holes to recombine.

 As a result, stimulated emission takes place which

produces laser.
Semiconductor Diagram:
Construction:
 The basic construction of semiconductor laser.

 The active medium is a p-n junction diode made

from the single crystal of gallium arsenide.

 This crystal is cut in the form of a platter having

thickness of 0.5μmm.

 The platelet consists of two parts having an

electron conductivity (n-type) and hole conductivity
(p-type).
 The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin
layer of PN junction (in order of few microns).

 The electrical voltage is applied to the crystal

through the electrode fixed on the upper surface.

 The end faces of the junction diode are well polished

and parallel to each other.

 They act as an optical resonator through which the

emitted light comes out.
Energy Level Diagram:
Working:
 When the PN junction is forward biased with large
applied voltage, the electrons and holes are injected into
junction region in considerable concentration.

 The region around the junction contains a large amount

of electrons in the conduction band and a large amount of
holes in the valence band.

 If the population density is high, a condition of

population inversion is achieved.

 The electrons and holes recombine with each other and

this recombination’s produce radiation in the form of light.
 When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more
and more light photons are emitted and the light
production instantly becomes stronger.

 These photons will trigger a chain of stimulated

recombination resulting in the release of photons in
phase.

 The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels

back and forth by reflection between two sides placed
parallel and opposite to each other and grow in strength.
 After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser
beam of wavelength 8400Ȧ.

 The wavelength of laser light is given by,

where Eg is the band gap energy in joule.

 Characteristics:
Type : Homojunction Semiconductor laser

Active Medium : P – N junction

Active Centre : Recombination of electrons and holes

Pumping Method : Direct Pumping

Optical Resonator : Polished junction of diode

Power Output : 1 mW
Nature of Output : Continuous or pulsed

Wavelength Emitted : (8400 – 8600) Ȧ

Advantages:
 It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple
and compact.

 It exhibits high efficiency.

 The laser output can be easily increased by controlling

the junction current .

 It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2

laser.

 It requires very little auxiliary equipment. It can have a

continuous wave output or pulsed output.
Disadvantages:
 It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode
structure of laser.

 The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e.,

laser beam has large divergence.

 The purity and monochromacity are powerful than

other types of laser.

 Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).

 It has poor coherence and poor stability.

Applications:
 It is widely used in fiber optic communication.

 It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation.

 It is also used as a pain killer.

 It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.

 HETERO JUNCTION DIODE LASER
A PN junction made up of the different materials in
two regions ie., n type and p type is known ad hetero-
junction.

Principle:
 When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the
electrons from the n region and holes from the p
region recombine with each other at the junction.

During recombination process, light is released from

certain specified direct band gap semiconductors.
Diagram:
Construction:
 A layer of Ga-As p–type (3rd layer) will act as the active
region.

 This layer is sand witched between two layers having

wider band gap, ie., GaAlAs p–type (2nd layer) and GaAlAs
n-type (4th layer).

 The end faces of the junctions of 3rd and 4th layer are
well polished and parallel to each other.

 They act as an optical resonator.

Energy Level Diagram:
Working:
 When the PN junction is forward biased, the electrons
and holes are injected into the junction region.

 The region around the junction contains large amount

of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the
valence band.

 Thus, the population inversion is achieved.

 At this stage, some of the injected charge carriers

recombines and produce radiation in the form of light.
 When the forward biased voltage is increased, more
and more light photons are emitted and the light
intensity is more.

 These photons can trigger a chain of stimulated

recombination’s resulting in the release of photons in
phase.

 The photons moving at the plane of the junction

travels back and forth by reflection between two sides
and grow its strength.

 A coherent beam of laser having wavelength nearly

8000Ȧ emerge out from the junction region.
Characteristics:
Type : Hetero-junction Semiconductor laser

Active Medium : PN junction made by different layers

Active Centre : Recombination of electrons and holes

Pumping Method : Direct Pumping

Optical Resonator : Polished junction of diode

Power Output : 10mW

Nature of Output : Continuous

Wavelength Emitted : 8000 Ȧ

Advantages:
 It produces continuous wave output.

 The power output is very high.

Disadvantages:
 It is very difficult to grow different layers of PN junction.

 The cost is very high.

Applications:
 This type of laser is mostly used in optical applications.

 It is widely used in computers, especially on CD-ROMs.

COMPARISON CHART OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LASER
 APPLICATIONS OF LASER
 Medical Applications.

 Industrial Applications.
(a) Laser Heat Treatment
(b) Laser Cutting
(c) Laser Welding
Medical Applications of Laser:
The following are some of the applications of laser in
medical field:

 They have been used successfully in the treatment of

detached retinas.

 It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless

operations, to cure cancer and skin tumors in human
beings and animals, etc.

 Treatment of tissue in the skull and spine.

LASER EYE SURGERY:
 It is used in drilling minute holes in cell walls of
human body.

 It is used to shatter the kidney stones.

 Laser is used to cut the bones precisely.

 Removal of skin imperfections by laser irradiation.

 Ear, nose and throat surgery.

Industrial Applications of Laser:
Laser Welding:
 Focusing a beam of laser on the welding spot does laser
welding.

 The heat generated melts the material over a tiny area

on which the beam is focused.

 The impurities such as oxides float on the surface of the

melt.

 Hence when cooled the welded region becomes

homogeneous solid structure.
Laser Welding:
 This makes the joint stronger.

 Since the Laser beam can be controlled with a high

precision the welding is also done with high precision.

 Laser welding is a contact less process.

 Hence no foreign material can get into the welded joint.

 Laser welding is used in microelectronics in which

components are sensitive to heat.

 Carbon-dioxide lasers with a power output of 10 KW are

used for this purpose.
Laser Cutting:

 In metals Laser cutting is done with the assistance of gas

blowing.

 A nozzle through which oxygen gas is blown surrounds

the focusing part of the Laser.

 Hence a fine jet of gas is also focused on the cutting

spot to where the Laser beam is focused.

 The combustion of the gas burns the metal.

 The oxygen jet will blow the tiny splinters along with the
molten part of the metal away.

 The Laser beam controls the accuracy of cutting not the

burning gas.

 Laser cutting is used in Textile industry, etc.

 Low Power Carbon-dioxide lasers are used for cutting

purposes.

 The advantages of the laser cutting are:

(a) High quality Cutting
(b) No thermal damage and chemical change etc.,
Laser Drilling:

 Subjecting the material to pulses does Laser Drilling.

 The duration of the pulses will be of 0.1 ms to 1 ms.

 The intense heat generated over a short duration by the

pulses evaporates the material locally.

 Hence the hole is left.

 Nd-YAG Laser is used in case metals but Carbon Dioxide

Laser is used in case of both Metals and Non metals.
 The advantages of Laser drilling are:
(a) No tools wear out
(b) Drilling can be achieved at any oblique angle
(c) Very fine holes of dimension 0.2 to 0.5 mm can
be drilled.
Laser Heat Treatment:

 The laser beam has very high intensity, directionality

and coherence.

 Hence when laser beam is focused on a particular area

over a long time, the temperature of that area will be
increased.

 This is called THERMAL EFFECT of laser.

HOLOGRAM-THE HISTORY
 Holography was invented in
1947 by Hungarian physicist
Dennis Gabor (1900–1979),
work for which he received
the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1971.
 In 1962, with the advent of
lasers, Leith & Upatnicks
revised Gabor’s idea in
photography.
 This technique is now
known as HOLOGRAPHY.
 With ordinary photographs, only two dimensional
picture can be recorded.

 But holography enables the recording and reproduction

of the 3D image of an object.

 It is a method of obtaining 3D photographic images.

 These images are obtained without a lens, so the

method is also called lens less photography.

 The records are called HOLOGRAMS.

 Holography is a TWO step process:

(1) Construction of Hologram

(2) Reconstruction of Hologram

(1) Construction of Hologram:

The object is transformed into a photographic record.
(2) Reconstruction of Hologram:
The hologram is transformed into the image.
 No lens is needed in either step!!
Construction of Hologram:
Principle:
Two beams (object beam and reference beam) are
superimposed on a holographic plate to form an image
called a HOLOGRAM.

Working:
The laser beam is divided into TWO parts:
(1) Reference beam
(2) Object beam.
 The object beam illuminates the object.

 The scattered waves from the object fall on a

photographic plate (P).
 The reference beam is directly fall on to the
photographic plate by means of a plane mirror M.

 Both the beams belong to the same laser source and

the beams Interfere on the plate.

 Thus a complicated interference pattern is formed and

recorded on the photographic plate.

 The image is recorded on the holographic plate by

means of optical codes such as maximum intensity of
light and minimum intensity of light.

 Thus, developed film is called a 'hologram'.

Precautions:

 The total setup has to be kept in a vibration less table.

 Total darkness should be maintained.

 The distance travelled by the reference beam and the

object beam, should be almost same.
Re-Construction of Hologram:
 When the hologram is illuminated by a coherent source
of light having the same wavelength and incident at the
same angle of incidence equal to that of the reference
beam used while recording, a three dimensionai image of
the original object is formed.

 The process of image formation from the hologram is

known as reconstruction of hologram.

Principle:
The hologram is illuminated by a single beam from laser
source. This beam is diffracted by the hologram, which in
turn gives rise to a 3D image in the field of view.
Working:

 This is a reverse process of making a hologram .

 The laser beam of the same wavelength as that of
reference beam (used while recording) is made to fall
on the hologram at the same angle of incidence as that
of reference beam.

 Now the hologram acts as a complex grating and

diffracts the light.

 Along the direction of the beam, get zeroth order

which gives no information.

 The reason is that the laser beam which is passed

through the hologram has only amplitude variation but
no information about phase variation.
 On the otherhand, the diffracted beam carries the
information of the phase and amplitude related to the
object when the hologram was recorded.

 The object wave-front have been reconstructed.

 Here, it is important to note that one of the diffracted

beams forms real image, while another forms a virtual
image.

 By moving the position of our eyes, we can see full view

of the object.
 The real image can be photographed without the aid of
lenses just by placing a light medium at the position of
real image.
 The virtual image has all the characteristics of the object
like parallax, etc.

Precautions:

 Hologram should not be disturbed.

 The wavelength of reading and reference beam should
be same.
 The object should be removed carefully.
Applications of Holography:
 It is used in the identification of finger prints.

 Holography can be used to get 3D image of our internal

organs.

 It is used for holographic cinema and spatial filtration.

 They are used in the production of photographic masks.

 It is used in supermarkets scanners as a bar code

reader.
Difference Between Photography &
Holography:
Photography Holography
1. Ordinary light is used 1.Laser light is used

2. The variation of 2.The distribution of

amplitude alone is amplitude & phase is
recorded recorded

3. It gives 2D image 3.It gives 3D image ie.,

complete picture
4. Lens is used
4. No lens is used