What is meant by Fuel Characterization?

Fuel characterization concerns with the “analysis” and “energy content of

fuel” (also known as calorific value).

Fuel analysis comprises of “proximate” and “ultimate”.

(A) Proximate analysis:
In the proximate analysis, moisture (M), Ash (A) and volatile matter (VM) are
determined. Fixed carbon (FC) is obtained from the following equation

FC= 100 – (%M + %A +%VM)-------------------------------------------(1)

There are standard tests to determine proximate analysis. Moisture is

determined by drying 1 gm of sample at 105 °C for 1 hr

Weight loss is expressed by in % of initial weight of a sample

% M = (Weight Loss/Weight of the sample) Х 100 ---------------------(2)

Ash is weight of residue obtained after complete combustion of 1 g of coal at
700‐750oC.

Ash in % is

%A= (weight of residue/weight of sample)×100 ------------------------------(3)

Volatile matter (VM) is the weight loss obtained on heating 1 gm sample of coal at
950°C for 7 minutes in the absence of air.

Total weight loss of a moist coal= Weight loss due to Volatile matter + Moisture

Weight loss due to VM = Total weight loss – moisture

If coal sample is dry then weight loss is due to VM only.

% VM = (weight loss due to VM/ weight of sample) ×100-----------(5)

Fixed carbon can be calculated by eq. 1.

(B) Ultimate Analysis
The main chemical elements in coal (apart from associated mineral matter) are
C, O, H, N and S.
The chemical analysis is very important to calculate material balance accurately and
calorific value of coal.
For the ultimate analysis C, H, S and N are determined by chemical analysis and
expressed on a moisture free basis.
% Ash is determined as in proximate analysis and is calculated on moisture free basis.
Then,

%O = 100 (%C + %H + %N + %S + % ash) ---------------------------(6)

(C) Note on Ash and Volatile Matter

In fact coal contains mineral matter (MM) like CaCO3, MgCO3, SiO2, Al2O3, Na2CO3 etc.
but not ash. Ash is residue obtained after complete combustion of coal and
consists of CaO, MgO, SiO2, Al2O3 etc. Ash and mineral matter are not identical.
Total mineral matter (MM) can be calculated by Parr formula1)

MM = 1.08A + 0.55 %S ------------------------(7)

While calculating FC on mineral matter basis, Parr subtracts 0.15% S from measured
fixed carbon.
Volatile Matter
It consists of volatile substances formed during heating of coal out of contact of air.
Essentially these are gaseous substances like CO, H2, H2O, CO2, CH4, N2,,O2
and other hydrocarbons. Volatile matter does not include moisture of coal
but includes water formed during reaction between hydrogen and oxygen of
coal.

Dry mineral

As received Dry Basis* Dry‐ash free**

matter free***

%M 6.8 − − −

%A 12.3 13.2 − −

%VM 36.2 38.84 44.7 44.6

%FC 44.2 47.42 54.7 55.4

%S 0.5 0.54 0.6 −

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

*Analysis on dry basis = {%A or %VM/ (100‐ %M)} ×100

%FC on dry basis = 100 – (%M + %A)

**Analysis on dry‐ash free basis (daf) = {%VM/{100− (%M + %A)} ×100

%FC on daf basis = 100 − %VM

***Dry mineral matter free FC = (FC – 0.15 %S)/ {100 – (%M + 1.08A + 0.55 %S)}

Dry mineral matter free VM = 100 – Dry mineral matter free FC

 (B) Ultimate Analysis:

Compn(%) As received As received* Dry basis*

(Moist basis) (Moist basis)

C 69.8 69.8 73.1

H 4.6 5.1 4.8

O 8.5 12.5 8.9

N 1.4 1.4 1.5

S 2.5 2.5 2.6

A 8.7 8.7 9.1

M 4.5 − −

Total 100 100 100

* %H (Moist) = (%H + 2/18 %M) and %O (Moist) = (%O + 16/18 %M)

Gaseous Fuels:

Natural gas is a fossil fuel. All gaseous fuels have

Combustible Incombustible

CO N2
H2 CO2
Hydrocarbon (CH4, C6H6, C2H4 etc.) H2O

Advantages:

Easy to handle

Ash less

Good Combustion

Calorific Value of gaseous fuel can be calculated from the heat of

formation values.
2.6 Calorific Value (hereafter CV):

Calorific value (CV) is the amount of heat released on complete combustion of 1 kg of

coal at the reference state of products of combustion (POC hereafter).

For a hydrocarbon fuel containing C, H and S, products of complete combustion

are CO2, H2O and SO2. Reference state of POC is

25oC CO2 (g), SO2 (g) and H2O (l) = Gross Calorific Value (GCV)

100oC CO2 (g), SO2 (g) and H2O (v) = Net Calorific Value (NCV)

So GCV > NCV by an amount equal to latent heat of condensation.

CV can be expressed as cal/g, kcal/kg, kJ/kg, Btu/lb or cal/gmol, kcal/kgmol, kJ/kgmol,

Btu/lbmol
(A) Determination of CV of Solid Fuel

CV can be determined experimentally or from theoretical considerations.

In laboratory Bomb calorimeter is used where 1 g coal is combusted at constant
volume and rise in temperature is noted1,2) .

Theoretically, CV of coal can be determined from the heat of formation of products

of complete combustion at 298K and 1 atm. pressure.

In terms of % of elements:

GCV = 81 %C + 341 (%H − %O/8) + 22 %S kcal/kg (9)

GCV = 339 %C + 1427 (%H − %O/8) + 92 %S kJ/kg (10)

NCV = GCV – Heat of vaporization of water

NCV = GCV – 5.84 (9 %H + %M) kcal/kg (11)

NCV = GCV – 24.44 (9 %H + %M) kJ/kg (12)

Equations 9 to 12 are Dulong’s formula

Assumptions:

Heat of formation of coal is zero.

Coal contains H and O. Therefore, available H for combustion with gaseous oxygen = (%H −
%O/8).

CV of coal is sum of CV of heat of formation of complete combustion products.

Heat of vaporization of water at 100oC = 542 kcal/kg (975 Btu/lb); whereas at 25oC it is 584
kcal/kg (1050 Btu/lb).