Dr.

A J Karki
Tutor, Anesthesiology
NAMS
Gas laws -basic concepts
Flow of fluids -basic concepts
Diffusion –basic concepts
 At a constant temperature, the
volume of a given mass of gas varies
inversely with the absolute pressure

V  1/P or PV = Constant (k1) or

P1V1=P2V2
(1662;
Robert
Boyle,
1627-1691,
English
chemist).
P1V1 P2V2 P3V3
1.To calculate the content of oxygen cylinder;
 So pressure gauge act as content gauge for gases
– measure of amount of oxygen left in cylinder
 2. Measurement of FRC by body plethesmography.
Medical gases are stored in large amounts under
pressure (P1) in small volumes (V1). These gases
are delivered to patients at atmospheric pressure
(P2)
P1 = Gauge pressure of cylinder
V1 = Physical volume of cylinder
P2 = Atmospheric pressure
V2 = Actual amount of gas stored in the cylinder
An oxygen cylinder made of molybdenum steel and
of any physical volume (V1) can safely withstand a
gauge pressure of 138 bars (P1).
How much oxygen gas is stored in this physical
volume (V1) of the cylinder can thus be calculated.
Let us assume a physical volume V1 of 10 liters.
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
138 Bars x 10 litres = 1 Bar x O2 stored in the
cylinder
= 1380 L
 100 kPa
 1×105 N/m2
 1,000,000 dyn/cm2
 0.987 atm
 14.5038 psi
 29.53 inHg
 750.06 mmHg
 750.06 torr
 1,019.72 cmH2O
 At “CONSTANT PRESSURE” the “VOLUME” of mass
of a gas varies “DIRECTLY” with the ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE
V αT
 (1787;
Jacques
Alexander Cesar
Charles,
1746-1823,
French
physiologist).
1.Respiratory gas measurements of tidal volume &
vital capacity etc are done at ambient temperature
while these exchanges actually take place in the
body at 37OC.
2.One way of heat loss from the body is that air next
to the body surface gets warmer and moves up
and thus our patient loses heat this way (esp.
important in paediatric anaesthesia)
 At “CONSTANT VOLUME” the “ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE” of a mass of gas varies “DIRECTLY” with
the “TEMPERATURE”
 PαT
1. Medical gases are stored in cylinders having a
constant volume and high pressures (138 Barr in
a full oxygen / air cylinder). If these are stored at
high temperatures, pressures will rise causing
explosions.
2. Molybdenum steel can withstand pressures till
210 bars. Weakening of metal in damaged
cylinders are at a greater risk of explosion due to
rise in temperature
3. Hydrogen thermometer; when constant V of
hydrogen is heated, the rise in pressure
Combining the 3 perfect gas laws gives
the “IDEAL GAS LAW” and the
combination of ideal gas law with the
Avogadros hypothesis and the concept of
mole gives us the UNIVERSAL GAS.
PV = K1, V/T = K2 , P/T = K3
Which means
PV /T= Constant
For one mole of any gas (molecular weight
expressed in gms)
PV = n RT
R = Universal Gas Constant (UGC)
n = Number of moles
 The bourdon gauge or the pressure gauge acts as
a content gauge for gases since all other variables
are constant (i.e.) R = UGC, volume in the cylinder
capacity and temperature is the same at all times
in an operation theatre.
 Three gas laws are described the behavior of a
gas when one of the three variables P V or T
constant.
 For this condition to apply, heat energy is
required to be added to or taken from gas as the
change occur.
 The state of gas can also be altered without
allowing the gas to exchange heat energy with
its surrounding, and this is called an adiabatic
change.
.
Eg; Air is compressed in air supply unit, so temp of
the air rises because of compression and so
system of cooling is needed.
 If a gas cylinder connected an anesthetic machine
or regulator is turned quickly , the pressure of gas
in the connecting pipes and gauge rises rapidly,
thus gas is compressed adiabatically if not large
temp rises, with risk of fire.
 Avogadro’s Hypothesis states that equal volumes
of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain equal numbers of molecules
 Because the molecular weights of gases differ,
there will be a different mass of any gas in a given
volume at the same temperature and pressure
 Therefore it is more convenient to express a
quantity of a gas in terms of the number of
molecules, rather than in terms of mass.
 A MOLE is the quantity of a substance containing
the same number of particles as there are atoms in
0.012 kg of carbon12
 This numbers of is 6.022 x 1023 atoms, this is
called Avogadro’s Number
 One mole of any gas at STP occupies 22.4 litres
1. Calibration of vaporizers is done using Avogadro’s
hypothesis.
2. Calculating contain of nitrous oxide cylinder
 Full N20 cylinder contains 3.4 kg of N20
 Mwt of N20 is 44 so 1 mole of is 44gm. If the
measurements are made in STP,Volume obtained
from full cylinder will be;
 44g(1mole) of N2O occupies 22.4 litres at STP
 So,3400gm of N20 occupies 22.4 x 3,400/44 litres
= 1730 liters
 Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures states that in a
mixture of gases, the pressure exerted by each gas
is the same as that which it would exert if it alone
occupied the cylinder
 By Applying Boyle’s Law (PV = Constant ) and
Dalton’s Law we can conclude that the the partial
pressure of a gas in a mixture is obtained by
multiplying the total pressure by the fractional
concentration of the gas.
Atmospheric Air
 Atmospheric air is a mixture of several molecular
components. Presuming the air is dry (such that
water or H20 exerts no pressure), their
concentrations are: Nitrogen (N2): 78.08 percent
by volume Oxygen (O2): 20.95 percent Carbon
dioxide (CO2): 0.03 percent Argon (Ar): 0.93
percent

Those partial pressures may be expressed in

barometric millimeters of mercury (mm Hg),
which are as follows: Nitrogen: 593 mm Hg
 The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
in equilibrium with the liquid when
temperature is constant
1. If we raise the concentration of oxygen in the
gas, it will have a higher partial pressure, and
consequently more oxygen will become
dissolved in the blood.
2. Decompression sickeness — hyperbaric oxygen
therapy
 Fluids (gases or liquids)
 Flow is the quantity passing a point in a unit
time represented by Q.
 Flow can be laminar or turbulent.
 Flow changes from laminar to turbulent and is
halved when the Reynold’s number which is a
product of certain factors crosses the value of
2000.
Reynolds number = vpd / η
(V = Velocity.P = Density,d= Diameter,η =
Viscosity)
 In laminar flow, fluids moves in steady manner and
there are no eddies or turbulence.
 In small tubes at low flow.
 A steady flow greatest at the centre and slowest at
the periphery of tube.
 Laminar flow through tubes (blood vessels, ETT)
is directly proportional to the pressure gradient
(P) & fourth power of the radius and inversely
proportional to viscosity & length of the tubes.
Law Applicable – Hagen – Poiseuille’s Law
 Hagen – Poiseuille’s Law
Q = Π (P1 – P2) r4/ 8 η l
Q = flow, r4 = Radius to the power of four, P1 – P2
= Pressure difference across the tube, η =
Viscosity, L = Length, Π and 8 = constant
 Increased
velocity

 When the flow rate of fluids through a tube

(blood vessel, breathing circuits, ETT) exceed a
certain velocity (Reynolds number) laminar flow
changes into turbulent flow producing eddies
and reducing the flow to half.
 Turbulent flow is facilitated by corners,
irregularities and sharp angle etc.
 In turbulent flow, fluids no longer flows in a
smooth fashion but swirls in eddies and the
Reynolds number = v pd η /
(V = Velocity.P = Density,d= Diameter,η = Viscosity)

Physical property of gas effecting turbulent flow is

density, to which it is reversely proportional.
1- Usingan undersized ETT may cause
a tremendous decrease in the flow of
gases
2- Every piece of anaesthetic
equipment; because of diameters &
shape of connectors, number &
arrangement will effect FGF. Wide
bore & curved rather than sharp
angles should be preferred.
4- Laminar flow during quiet breathing
is changed to turbulent during
speaking & coughing leading to
dyspnea.
5- In the flow meter at low flows, Hagen
– Poiseuille’s Law applies because the
flow is laminar while at higher flows,
the law applicable to turbulent flow is
applicable.
 For a non-compressible, non-viscous
fluid undergoing laminar flow, the
sum of the pressure, kinetic and
potential energies per unit volume
remains a constant at all points along
the line of flow
 Any apparatus containing a tube with a
constriction and an opening at the constriction will
suck in air/ fluid due to low pressure at that site
(Bernoulli’s principle), Such an apparatus is known
as Venturi apparatus.
Application
 Suction apparatus, nebulizers and fixed
performance venturi masks are such devices
 Pressure drop induced by the increase in velocity
of a fluid passing through a narrow orifice can be
used to entrain air or a nebuliser solution for
treating our patients.
 If constriction occurs at bifurcation
because of increase in velocity and
reduction in the pressure, fluid (air,
blood) tends to stick to one side of
the branch causing maldistribution.
 Essentially any fluid coming into
contact with a curved surface will
cling to this surface and alter its
direction of flow
 This effect was named after a Romanian aircraft
designer Henri Coanda.

.
1. Mucus plug at the branching of tracheo-bronchial
tree may cause maldistribution of respiratory
gases.
2. Unequal flow may result because of
atherosclerotic plaques in the vascular tree.
3. Fluid logic used in ventilators employs this
principle to replace valves or mobile parts
 All states of matter are formed of molecules.
In liquids and more so in gases molecules are
free to move and this process is known as
diffusion.
Factors governing this process and the laws
applicable are :
1. State of matter ……… Liquid or Gas
2. Molecular size ………. Graham’s Law
3. Concentration gradient ……… Fick’s Law
4. Tension gradient / partial pressure ……
Modified Fick’s Law
 “Rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the
square root of its molecular size”. Heavier the gas
the longer it takes to diffuse.
Application
a) Flow Meters. Each gas with its own physical
property (density / molecular weight) must pass
through its own calibrated flow meter. Error in
reading flows will result otherwise.
b) Rate of Diffusion is slower in liquids and thus
local anaesthetics, if not injected in close proximity
to the nerve fibre will not be effective.
c) Helium, a lighter gas is used in airway obstruction
 The rate of transfer of a gas through a
sheet of tissue is proportional to the tissue
area and the dirfference in gas partial
pressure between the 2 sides and inversely
proportional to te tissue thickness.
Thankyou