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In 1887,when Photoelectric Effect was first introduced by

Heinrich Hertz, the experiment was not able to be explained using


classical principles. However, Q.M. was able to explain that the kinetic
energies of the photoelectrons were independent of the light intensity,
which implied that the stopping voltage depends only on the frequency
and not on the intensity.

Thus, Quantum Mechanics which was born in the 1900s, marked a


revolution in Physics. It is a very counterintuitive theory that continues
to puzzle physicists throughout the world. Its interpretation is still
debated and new ways are introduced almost daily.
Challenging the completeness of Q.M., in 1935,
Einstein together with Rosen and Podolsky published
their famous article “Can Quantum Mechanical
Description be considered complete?”. Here, they
introduced the EPR experiment which demonstrated
the deficiencies of Q.M.
The EPR Paradox drew attention to the phenomenon
known as Quantum Entanglement.

Definition of Quantum Entanglement: measurements on


spatially separated quantum systems can instantaneously
influence one another.
Here, it showed how to measure the property of a particle, such
as a position without disturbing it. It is the fact that QM treats
two particles, which interacted in the past (and so became
entangled) and then separated spatially (i.e., 'flew apart'), as one
object. When one such particle is changed, the other will change
too (instantly). Einstein called this the ‘spooky-action-at-a-
distance’, which he could not accept due to the violation of
‘principle of locality’. Therefore, Bohm came up with a further
explanation using ‘color experiment’.
Imagine that a single white particle splits into two, one green and one red. In
this experiment spin up is replaced with the color red, spin down is replaced
with the color green. The white particle is the combination of red + green.
One flies left while the other flies right, and we do not know which is which.
The particle on the left is measured to be red, while the one of the far right is
measured to be green. In Q.M., using Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, the
color could be either red or green depending on the time of measurement.
However, Bohm stated that through the hidden parameter theory, the
potentiality does not exist and that the left particle had always been red (spin
up) while the right particle had always been green (spin down). We just could
not see it. It was hidden, thus, violating Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Laws violated by Quantum Mechanics

• Principle of locality : changes performed on one


physical system should have no immediate effect on
another spatially separated system (formulated by
Einstein). In other words, an influence cannot travel
faster than the speed of light.
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle: one cannot
simultaneously know both the position and the
momentum of a given object.
In 1964, after investigation, Bell discovered that Bohm’s hidden
variables theories are either non-local or have to satisfy Bell’s
inequality equation (next slide). In a local reality, influences
cannot travel faster than light. Bell's theorem says that in any
reality of this sort, information does not get around fast enough to
be explained by quantum mechanics: therefore, reality must be
non-local.

N (a  b )  N (b  c )  N (a  c )
N (a  b )  N (b  c )  N (a  c )
a b c a b c

>
a a b
b cC c

=
Bell uses logic in his explanation of inequality equation.

Suppose a photon pair is emitted by a source in opposite directions.


the following three categories in which all detections are with spin up.
a . detectable at 0° and its pair at 45º .
b. detectable at 45º and its pair at 90º .
c. detectable at 0º and its pair at 90º.
Q.M. predicts that the probability that two particles will be detected at spin up with
an angle Φ between the detectors is as follows.
1  2
Eq. 1 (sin( ))
2 2
Inserting values in to equation 1, we get equation 2
1 45 2 1 45 2 1 90
Eq. 2 (sin( ))  (sin( ))  (sin( ))
2 2 2 2 2 2
which is evaluated as,

0.0732 + 0.0732 >= 0.25


0.1464 >= 0.25
which is not true. Since, it does not satisfy the inequality, it must
be non-local.
Most physicists agree that local hidden variable theories are
unacceptable and that the principle of locality does not hold, which
applies that there is an influence faster than the speed of light.
Therefore, EPR paradox would only be a paradox because our
physical intuition does not correspond to physical reality.

Hence, the book is still not closed on this paradox.


Bell's discovery of the necessary non-locality of deep reality is
the most important achievement in reality research since the
invention of quantum theory. Hence, quantum mechanics is an
incomplete theory, in the sense that it cannot represent all
elements of reality of a physical entity.

Thus, Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen had touched on a


fundamental problem in quantum mechanics, placing us in a
world questioning whether quantum mechanics is complete or
not.
http://deoxy.org/irc/bell.htm
http://www.mtnmath.com/willbe/whatth/node60.html

http://www.mtnmath.com/willbe/whatth/node60.html

http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/BellsTheorem/BellsTheorem.html

http://www.henrysturman.com/english/articles/EPR.php#loopholes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox

htpp://www.yub.ac.be/CLEA/aerts/publications/EPR_paradox.html
Marshall,Ian and Zohar, Danah. Who’s Afraid of Schrodinger’s Cat? New York.
1997 Pg.64-67

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