Ergonomics

(Human factors Engineering)

Challenges

 Incorporating ergonomics within the

organizations operating philosophy
Muscular Work

 Muscles make up about 40 % of the total body weight

 The most important characteristic of a muscle is to

shorten to about half its normal resting length (muscular
contraction)

 It produces its greatest active strength at the beginning

of the contraction when it is near it’s relaxed length. As it
shortens its ability to produce force declines
Muscular Effort

 Dynamic effort (motion)

Characterised by an alternation of contraction and
extension, tension and relaxation; muscle length
changes, often rhythmically

 Static effort (posture)

In contrast, static effort is characterized by a prolonged
state of contraction of the muscles, which usually
maintains a postural stance
Blood Supply
Static effort
 Blood vessels are compressed by the internal pressure
of the muscle tissue so that blood no longer flows
through the muscle. The muscle is not receiving fresh
blood and no sugar or oxygen and must depend upon its
own reserves which means that waste products are not
being removed
Dynamic effort
 Muscle acts a pump in the blood system; compression
squeezes blood out of the muscle and the subsequent
relaxation releases a fresh flow of blood into it
Effect of Static Work
 During static effort the flow of blood is constricted in
proportion to the force exerted
 Many experts are therefore of the opinion that work can
be maintained for several hours per day without
symptoms of fatigue if the force exerted does not exceed
about 10 percent of the maximum force of the muscle
involved (15-20% of the maximum force will induce
painful fatigue if such loads have to be kept up for very
long periods of time.)
 Oxygen deficiency, which is unavoidable during static
muscular effort, inevitably lowers the effective working
level of the muscle
Sources of energy

 Muscular work involves the transformation of chemical

into mechanical energy
 The source of energy most widely used by living
organisms is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which
releases considerable amounts of energy when it is
broken down into adenosine diphosphate
 ATP is present not only in muscles but in nearly every
kind of tissue, where it acts as a reservoir of readily
available energy
Roles of Glucose, fat and protein

 Glucose, the most important of the sugars circulating in

the blood, is the main energy supply in intensive physical
work
 For maintained physical work the components of fat
(fatty acids) and protein (amino acids) are the dominant
energy supplies.
 Nutritive substances, glucose, fat and protein are the
indirect energy sources for the continuous replenishment
of energy reserves in the form of ATP or other energy-
rich phosphate compounds
Heat Production

 A muscle must be supplied with at least the same

amount of energy that it uses. The incoming energy is
transformed into (a) work performed (b) heat and (c)
energy-rich chemical compounds
 Only a small percentage of the incoming energy is
converted into performed work
 Phosphate compounds stored are the smallest
component; in contrast generation of heat is by far the
biggest: in terms of energy use for muscular work
Symptoms of Overstress

Reversible Musculoskeletal troubles

 Short-lived. Pains are mostly localized to the muscles

and tendons and disappear as soon as the load is
relieved. These troubles are the pains of weariness

Persistent Musculoskeletal troubles

 Localized to strained muscles and tendons, but they

affect the joints and adjacent tissues as well
Physiological Principles

 The sensory and motor nerves, together with their

associated tracts and centres in the spinal cord and
brain, comprise the somatic nervous system, which
links the organism with the outside world through
perception, awareness and reaction
 The visceral or autonomic nervous system, which
controls the activities of all the internal organs, blood
circulation, breathing organs, digestive organs, glands
and so on – it therefore governs the internal mechanisms
that are essential to the life of the body
Optimal use of muscle strength

The maximal force a muscle, or group of muscles,

is capable of depends upon:

 Age (peak at 25-35 years)

 Gender (women 2/3rds as powerful)
 Constitution
 State of training
 Momentary motivation
Seven guidelines for Work Layout
 Avoid bent or unnatural body positions
 Avoid outstretched arms-forward or sideways
 Work sitting down
 Arm movements should be in opposition to each other or
symmetrical, avoid using one arm only
 Consider the operators vision in evaluating a workstation
or design (best distance from the eyes)
 Any operating levers, or controls should keep the
operators movements with elbows bent and near the
body
 Support the elbows, forearms and hands wherever
possible
Most important principles
 Minimise or abolish altogether the need to grasp and
hold things

 The dynamic effort of a repetitive nature should not

exceed 30 % of the maximum, although it may rise to
50% as long as the effort is not prolonged for more than
5 minutes
Design range and percentiles

 Meet the requirements of the majority

 Design for the central 90% of the group
Working Heights

 Instead of improvisations such as foot supports or

lengthening the legs of the work table, a fully adjustable
bench is recommended
 If fully adjustable benches are not an option, working
heights should be set to suit the tallest operators
 A sloped work surface is an improvement over a flat one,
posturally as well as visually
 Inclination angle of the head should not exceed 30% for
any prolonged period of time
Sitting at Work
 Well being and efficiency are improved and fatigue reduced if people
can sit
 Outlay of static muscular effort to keep the joints of the feet, knees and
hips in fixed positions is required; this ceases when a person sits down
 80% of adults have back problems at some time in their life. Most
common cause is disc trouble
 To keep the discs well nourished and in good condition an occasional
change of posture from bent to erect, and vice versa, must be beneficial
 Use of armrests results in a decrease of disc pressure
 Backrest should be set 20 or 30 degrees behind vertical
 Trunk inclination preferred between 100 and 110 degrees
 Seat pan tilted backward so the buttocks will not slide forward
 High backrest is best
 80% rested their forearms
 Split keyboard recommended
Heavy Work

 Can be defined as any activity that calls for great

physical exertion and is characterised by a high energy
consumption and severe stresses on the heart and lungs
 Process of converting chemical energy is metabolism
 Total energy expenditure is made up of: Basal
metabolism, Work joules, leisure joules
 20 000 kJ per working day (averaged over a year)
reasonable maximum for heavy work
 Pushing a cart requires about 15% less effort than
dragging it behind
 Static effort can cause a rise in heart rate
Handling Loads

 Main problem is not the heavy loading of muscles but the

wear and tear on the back, especially on the lumbar inter
vertebral discs

 Lift a load as close to the trunk as possible

 1991 recommendations for lifting and lowering loads is

only 23 kg even under the most favourable conditions
Mental Activity

 Mental activities rely on afferent information supply and

on the use of short and long-term memory to make
decisions.

 Proper ergonomic design of the work system avoids

mental overloads, including missing or false
interpretation of signals, and facilitates correct and fast
actions
Fatigue

Two types:

 Muscular fatigue (painful phenomenon which arises in

overstressed muscles and is localised there. It is
characterised by slower movement and reduced power)
 Lactic acid and carbon dioxide (waste products) multiply.
Muscle tissues become more acidic.
 General fatigue (a diffused sensation which is
accompanied by feelings of indolence and disinclination
for any kind of activity)
General Fatigue

 Recuperative processes must cancel out stresses

 Flicker fusion frequency of the eye has been used as an

indicator of the degree of fatigue. A lowering of the
flicker fusion frequency can be interpreted as a sign of
fatigue (controversial results)

 Psychomotor tests measure functions that involve

perception, interpretation and motor reactions
Occupational Stress

 Stress is defined as “the reaction of the organism to a

threatening or oppressing situation” Occupational Stress
“the emotional mood between the ability to cope and the
level of demand”

 Increase in heart rate and blood pressure as well as by

an increase in sugar level and metabolism. This is
called the “ergotropic setting” An intensified readiness
to defend life, including fighting, fleeing or other physical
achievements.
Stressors in the work environment

 Job control
 Social support
 Job distress
 Task and performance demands
 Job security
 Responsibility
 Physical environmental problems
 Complexity
Boredom
Causes:

 Prolonged repetitive work that is not very difficult yet

does not allow the operator to think about other things
entirely
 Prolonged monotonous supervisory work that calls for
continuous vigilance

 Under load leads to atrophy

 The right amount leads to healthy development
 Overload wears out the body
Personal Factors enhancing boredom
 People in a state of fatigue
 Not-adapted night workers

 People with low motivation and little interest

 People with a high level of education, knowledge and

ability
 Keen people who are eager for a demanding job

Conversely, the following are very resistant to boredom

 People who are very fresh and alert

 People who are still learning (a learner driver has no

time to be bored)
 People who are content with the job because it suits their
abilities
Working Hours and Eating Habits
 Excessive overtime reduces the output per hour –
accompanied by increase in absences for sicknesses
and accidents
 A working day of 8 h per day cannot be exceeded
without detriment if the work is heavy
 An extended working day is tolerable in jobs where the
nature of the work provides plenty of rest pauses
 Four day 40 h week rejected on medical and
physiological grounds
 Heavy work – obligatory pauses/arranged so that the
total energy expenditure of 20 000 kJ per work day is not
exceeded
Night Work and Shift Work

 Bodily functions fluctuates in a 24-h cycle, called the

diurnal or circadian rhythm

 Ergotropic phase in daytime (geared to performance)

 Trophotropic phase in night time (occupied with
recuperation and replacement of energy)

 Night shift workers accumulate a “sleep debt” which is

paid back on the two days rest (Sleep following a night
shift is often curtailed and of too little restorative value)
Three Work Shifts

 Day Shift complies with the regular day/night rhythm of

the body. Family, communal, leisure activities are
possible
 Evening shift – bad for social life, sleep is good after
this shift, family and leisure activities opportunities occur
in the early afternoon
 Night shift – bad from all angles. (Sleep, family, social)
Whatever physiological adjustment to night work is
achieved during the work week is partially lost during the
free weekend
Health Impacts of night and shift work
 Disturbance of sleeping habits
 Disturbance of eating habits
 Gastro-intestinal disorders
 Neuro-psychic functions
 Cardiovascular functions
 Chronic fatigue and unhealthy eating habits are primary
reasons for increased liability to nervous disorders and
ailments of the stomach and intestines
 Symptoms of occupational sickness among night
workers: weariness even after a period of sleep, mental
irritability, moods of depression, general loss of vitality
and disinclination to work
Lighting
 Luminance is the amount of light reflected or emitted
from a surface

 Illumination is the amount of light falling on to a surface

 Direct(ional) lighting means that a surface is illuminated

by light rays that come straight from a source

 Indirect lighting throws 90% or more of the light onto the

ceiling or walls which reflect it back into the room

A combination of direct and indirect lighting is widely used

Working in Hot Conditions
 Acclimatisation to heat is necessary. It is best accomplished in
stated (Begin with 50% of the working time in the heat and increase
by 10% each day)
 The higher the heat load and the greater the physical effort
performed under heat stress, the longer and more frequent the
should be the pauses
 A person should drink small amounts of fluid at frequent intervals
(not more than .25 litres at a time and a cupful every 10-15 minutes
is recommended)
 If large quantities of fluids are needed it is best to dring plain water.
Lukewarm beverages are more quickly absorbed than cold
 Iced beverages, fruit juice and alcoholic drinks ar enot
recommended.