Sean DeHart

Smriti Chopra
Hannes Daepp
 Overview

 DC Motors (Brushed and Brushless)

 Brief Introduction to AC Motors
 Stepper Motors
 Linear Motors

Sean DeHart 2
 Electric Motor Basic Principles
 Interaction between magnetic field and current
carrying wire produces a force
 Opposite of a generator

Sean DeHart 3
 Conventional (Brushed) DC Motors
 Permanent magnets
for outer stator
 Rotating coils for inner
rotor 
 Commutation
performed with metal
contact brushes and
contacts designed to
reverse the polarity of
the rotor as it reaches
horizontal

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 2 pole brushed DC motor commutation

Sean DeHart 5
 Conventional (Brushed) DC Motors
 Common Applications:
 Small/cheap devices such as toys, electric tooth
brushes, small drills
 Lab 3
 Pros:
 Cheap, simple
 Easy to control - speed is governed by the voltage and
torque by the current through the armature
 Cons:
 Mechanical brushes - electrical noise, arcing, sparking,
friction, wear, inefficient, shorting

Sean DeHart 6
 DC Motor considerations
 Back EMF - every motor is also a generator
 More current = more torque; more voltage = more speed
 Load, torque, speed characteristics

 Shunt-wound, series-wound (aka universal motor),

compound DC motors

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 Brushless DC Motors
 Essential difference - commutation is performed
electronically with controller rather than
mechanically with brushes

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 Brushless DC Motor Commutation

 Commutation is performed electronically using a

controller (e.g. HCS12 or logic circuit)
Similarity with stepper motor, but with less #
poles
Needs rotor positional closed loop feedback: hall
effect sensors, back EMF, photo transistors
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 BLDC (3-Pole) Motor Connections
 Has 3 leads instead of 2 like brushed DC
 Delta (greater speed) and Wye (greater torque)
stator windings 

Delta               Wye

Sean DeHart 10
 Brushless DC Motors
 Applications
 CPU cooling fans
 CD/DVD Players
 Electric automobiles
 Pros (compared to brushed DC)
 Higher efficiency
 Longer lifespan, low maintenance
 Clean, fast, no sparking/issues with brushed contacts
 Cons
 Higher cost
 More complex circuitry and requires a controller

Sean DeHart 11
 AC Motors
Two main types of AC motor, Synchronous and
Induction.
Synchronous motors supply power to both the rotor
and the stator, where induction motors only supply
power to the stator coils, and rely on induction to
generate torque.

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 AC Induction Motors (3 Phase)
 Use poly-phase (usually 3) AC current to create a rotating
magnetic field on the stator
 This induces a magnetic field on the rotor, which tries to
follow stator - slipping required to produce torque
 Workhorses of the industry - high powered applications

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 AC induction Motors
Induction motors only supply current to the stator,
and rely on a second induced current in the rotor coils.
This requires a relative speed between the rotating
magnetic field and the rotor. If the rotor somehow
matches or exceeds the magnetic field speed, there is
condition called slip.
Slip is required to produce torque, if there is no slip,
there is no difference between the induced pole and
the powered pole, and therefore no torque on the
shaft.

Sean DeHart 14
 Synchronous AC Motors
Current is applied to both the Rotor and the Stator.
This allows for precise control (stepper motors), but
requires mechanical brushes or slip rings to supply DC
current to the rotor.
There is no slip since the rotor does not rely on
induction to produce torque.

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 Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which
converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates
in discrete step increments when electrical command
pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence.

Smriti Chopra
 Main features

The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the

direction of motor shafts rotation.

The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to

the frequency of the input pulses.

The length of rotation is directly related to the number of

input pulses applied.

Smriti Chopra
 Stepper Motor Characteristics
Open loop
The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop
control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.

Brushless
Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore
the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.

Incremental steps/changes
The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

Speed increases -> torque decreases

Smriti Chopra
 Torque vs. Speed
Torque varies inversely with
speed.

Current is proportional to
torque.

Torque → ∞ means Current →

∞, which leads to motor
damage.

Torque thus needs to be limited

to rated value of motor.
Smriti Chopra
 Disadvantages of stepper motors
There are two main disadvantages of stepper motors:

Resonance can occur if not properly controlled.

This can be seen as a sudden loss or drop in torque at certain speeds which can
result in missed steps or loss of synchronism. It occurs when the input step pulse rate
coincides with the natural oscillation frequency of the rotor. Resonance can be
minimised by using half stepping or microstepping .

Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

20
 Working principle
Stepper motors consist of a permanent magnet rotating
shaft, called the rotor, and electromagnets on the
stationary portion that surrounds the motor, called the
stator.

When a phase winding of a stepper

motor is energized with current, a
magnetic flux is developed in the
stator. The direction of this flux is
determined by the “Right Hand
Rule”.
Smriti Chopra
 At position 1, the rotor is
beginning at the upper
electromagnet, which is
currently active (has voltage
applied to it).

To move the rotor clockwise

(CW), the upper
electromagnet is deactivated
and the right electromagnet is
activated, causing the rotor to
move 90 degrees CW, aligning
itself with the active magnet.

This process is repeated in the

same manner at the south and
west electromagnets until we
once again reach the starting
position.
Smriti Chopra
 Understanding resolution
Resolution is the number of degrees rotated per step.

Step angle = 360/(NPh * Ph) = 360/N

NPh = Number of equivalent poles per phase = number of rotor

poles.
Ph = Number of phases.
N = Total number of poles for all phases together.

Example: for a three winding motor with a rotor having 4 teeth,

the resolution is 30 degrees.
Smriti Chopra
 Two phase stepper motors
There are two basic winding arrangements for the
electromagnetic coils in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar
and unipolar.

unipolar bipolar
Smriti Chopra
 Main difference
A unipolar stepper motor has two windings per phase, one
for each direction of magnetic field. In this arrangement a
magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the
direction of current.

Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase. The

current in a winding needs to be reversed in order to
reverse a magnetic pole.

Bipolar motors have higher torque but need more complex

driver circuits.

Smriti Chopra
 Stepping modes
Wave Drive (1 phase on)
A1 – B2 – A2 – B1
(25% of unipolar windings , 50% of bipolar)

Full Step Drive (2 phases on)

A1B2 – B2A2 – A2B1 – B1A1
(50% of unipolar windings , full bipolar
windings utilization)

Half Step Drive (1 & 2 phases on)

A1B2 – B2 – B2A2 – A2 ----
(increases resolution)

Microstepping (Continuously
varying motor currents)
A microstep driver may split a full step into as many as 256 microsteps.
Smriti Chopra
 Types of Stepper Motors
There are three main types of stepper motors:

Variable Reluctance stepper motor

Permanent Magnet stepper motor

Hybrid Synchronous stepper motor

Smriti Chopra
 Variable Reluctance motor
This type of motor consists of a soft iron multi-toothed
rotor and a wound stator.

When the stator windings are energized

with DC Current, the poles become magnetized.

Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth

are attracted to the energized stator
poles.

Smriti Chopra
 Permanent Magnet motor
The rotor no longer has teeth as with
the VR motor.

Instead the rotor is

magnetized with alternating north
and south poles situated in a straight
line parallel to the rotor shaft.

These magnetized rotor poles provide an increased

magnetic flux intensity and because of this
the PM motor exhibits improved torque characteristics
when compared with the VR type.

Smriti Chopra
 Hybrid Synchronous motor
The rotor is multi-toothed like the VR motor and
contains an axially magnetized concentric
magnet around its shaft.

The teeth on the rotor provide an even

better path which helps guide the
magnetic flux to preferred locations in
the air gap.

Smriti Chopra
 Applications
Stepper motors can be a good choice whenever controlled
movement is required.
They can be used to advantage in applications where you
need to control rotation angle, speed, position and
synchronism.

These include
 printers
 plotters
 medical equipment
 fax machines
 automotive and scientific equipment etc.

Smriti Chopra
Linear Motors
Hannes Daepp
 Basics of Linear Motors [1],[4]
Analogous to Unrolled DC Motor

• Force (F) is generated

when the current (I) I

(along vector L) and the

flux density (B) interact
• F = LI x B
Hannes Daepp
 Linear Motors in Action

 http://www.parkermotion.com/video/Braas_Trilogy_T3E_Video.MPG

Hannes Daepp
 Analysis of Linear Motors [1],[5]
Analysis is similar to that of rotary machines
Linear dimension and displacements replace angular ones
Forces replace torques
Commutation cycle is distance between two consecutive pole pairs instead of 360 degrees

Hannes Daepp
 Benefits of Linear Motors [2]
High Maximum Speed
 Limited primarily by bus voltage, control electronics
High Precision
 Accuracy, resolution, repeatability limited by feedback device, budget
 Zero backlash: No mechanical transmission components.
Fast Response
 Response rate can be over 100 times that of a mechanical
transmission  faster accelerations, settling time (more throughput)
Stiffness
 No mechanical linkage, stiffness depends mostly on gain & current
Durable
 Modern linear motors have few/no contacting parts  no wear

Hannes Daepp
 Downsides of Linear Motors [2]
Cost
 Low production volume (relative to demand)
 High price of magnets
 Linear encoders (feedback) are much more expensive than rotary
encoders, cost increases with length
Higher Bandwidth Drives and Controls
Lower force per package size
Heating issues
 Forcer is usually attached to load  I2R losses are directly coupled to
load
No (minimal) Friction
 No automatic brake
Hannes Daepp
 Components of Linear Motors
[2],[3]
Forcer (Motor Coil)
 Windings (coils) provide current (I)
 Windings are encapsulated within core
material
 Mounting Plate on top
 Usually contains sensors (hall effect
and thermal)
Magnet Rail
 Iron Plate / Base Plate
F=
 Rare Earth Magnets of alternating
lI x B
polarity provide flux (B)
 Single or double rail

Hannes Daepp
 Types of Linear Motors [1],[2],[3]
Iron Core
 Coils wound around
teeth of laminations
on forcer

Ironless Core
 Dual back iron
separated by spacer
 Coils held together
with epoxy

Slotless
 Coil and back iron
held together with
epoxy

Hannes Daepp
 Linear Motor Types: Iron Core [1],[2]
Distinguishing Feature
 Copper windings around forcer laminations over a single magnet rail
Advantages:
 Highest force available per unit volume
 Efficient Cooling
 Lower cost
Disadvantages:
 High attractive force between forcer & magnet track
 Cogging: iron forcer affects thrust
force as it passes over each
magnet (aka velocity ripple)

Hannes Daepp
 Linear Motor Types: Ironless
Top View
[1],[2]
Distinguishing Feature
 Forcer constructed of wound coils held
together with epoxy and running
between two rails (North and South)
 Also known as “Aircore” or “U-channel” Front View
motors Forcer
Advantages: Mounting
 No attractive forces in forcer Plate
Winding, held
 No Cogging by epoxy Rare
 Low weight forcer - No iron means Earth
higher accel/decel rates Hall Effect and
Magnets
Horseshoe
Disadvantages: Thermal
Shaped
 Low force per package size Sensors in coil
backiron
 Lower Stiffness; limited max load without improved structure
 Poor heat dissipation
 Higher cost (2x Magnets!)
Hannes Daepp
 Linear Motor Types: Slotless [1],[2]
Side View

Distinguishing Feature
 Mix of ironless and iron core: coils with
back iron contained within aluminum
housing over a single magnet rail
Front View
Advantages over ironless: Coil Back Mounting
 Lower cost (1x magnets) assembly iron plate
Thermal
 Better heat dissipation sensor
 Structurally stronger forcer
 More force per package size
Advantages over iron core:
Rare Iron
 Lighter weight and lower inertia forcer Earth plate
 Lower attractive forces Magnets
 Less cogging
Hannes Daepp
 Linear Motor Types: Slotless [2],[3]
Side View

Disadvantages
 Some attractive force and cogging
 Less efficient than iron core and
ironless - more heat to do the same job Front View
Coil Back Mounting
Thermal assembly iron plate
sensor

Rare Iron
Earth plate
Magnets

Hannes Daepp
 Linear Motor Type Comparison [2]
Linear Brushless DC Motor Type

Feature Iron Core Ironless Slotless

Attraction Force Most None Moderate

Cost Medium High Lowest

Force Cogging Highest None Medium

Power Density Highest Medium Medium

Forcer Weight Heaviest Lightest Moderate

Hannes Daepp
 Components of a “Complete” Linear
Motor System [3]
1. Motor components
2. Base/Bearings
3. Servo controller/feedback
elements
• Typical sensors include Hall
Effect (for position) and thermal
sensors
4. Cable management

Hannes Daepp
 Sample Pricing
$3529
 Trilogy T1S Ironless linear
motor
 110V, 1 pole motor
 Single bearing rail
 ~12’’ travel
 magnetic encoder
 Peak Velocity = 7 m/s
 Resolution = 5μm

Hannes Daepp
 Applications [3],[5],[6]
 Small Linear Motors
 Packaging and Material Handling
 Automated Assembly
 Reciprocating compressors and
alternators
 Large Linear Induction Machines
(3 phase)
 Transportation
 Materials handling
 Extrusion presses

Hannes Daepp
References
[1] S. Cetinkunt, Mechatronics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken 2007.
[2] J. Barrett, T. Harned, J. Monnich, Linear Motor Basics, Parker
Hannifin Corporation,
http://www.parkermotion.com/whitepages/linearmotorarticle.pdf
[3] Trilogy Linear Motor & Linear Motor Positioners, Parker Hannifin
Corporation, 2008,
http://www.parkermotion.com/pdfs/Trilogy_Catalog.pdf
[4] Rockwell Automation,
http://www.rockwellautomation.com/anorad/
products/linearmotors/questions.html
[5] J. Marsh, Motor Parameters Application Note, Parker-Trilogy Linear
Motors, 2003. http://www.parkermotion.com/whitepages/
Linear_Motor_Parameter_Application_Note.pdf
[6] Greg Paula, Linear motors take center stage, The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, 1998.
References (continued)
 http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/jw/electricmotors.ht
ml
 http://www.speedace.info/solar_car_motor_and_drivet
rain.htm
 http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_13/1.html 
 http://www.tpub.com/neets/book5/18d.htm single
phase induction motor
 http://www.stefanv.com/rcstuff/qf200212.html
Brushless DC motors
 https://www.geckodrive.com/upload/Step_motor_basic
s.pdf
 http://www.solarbotics.net/library/pdflib/pdf/motorbas
.pdf 49