Defining Motivation

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries
 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Higher-order
needs

Self-
actualization
needs

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs
Lower-order
needs
The Hierarchy of Needs
 Maslow believed that each need level must be
satisfied before the level above it becomes
important.
 The escalation up the hierarchy continues until
the self-actualization needs become the primary
motivators.
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
Factors characterizing events
on the job that led to extreme
job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events

on the job that led to extreme
job satisfaction

Comparison of
Satisfiers and
Dissatisfiers
The Dual-Structure Theory

Motivation Factors Hygiene Factors

- Achievement - Supervision
- Recognition - Working Conditions
- The Work Itself - Pay and Job Security
- Responsibility - Company Policies
- Advancement - Relationships
The Dual-Structure Theory
 Developed by Frederick Herzberg
 Herzberg conceptualized motivation as a dual
structure phenomenon consisting of motivation
factors and hygiene factors.
– Motivation factors are intrinsic to the work itself
and include factors such as achievement and
recognition. These factors cause motivation and
satisfaction.
The Dual-Structure Theory
 Motivation and hygiene factors (continued)
– Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself
and include factors such as pay and job security.

– These factors do not necessarily lead to

satisfaction. If inadequate, however, these
factors can lead to dissatisfaction.
 The Dual-Structure Theory

The Traditional View

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View
Motivation Factors
Satisfaction
No Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfaction
No Dissatisfaction
 Assessment of Herzberg
Contributions
 1st to argue that job
content/job design was
important
 Job enrichment as a
motivational strategy
 Model appealing, easy to
understand
 Explained why “more” hygiene
factors did not increase
motivation
Criticisms
 Some individual
differences, like desire for pay,
rejected as a motivator. Not
everyone wants an enriched
job.
 Assumes satisfaction =
motivation
 May be “method-bound” by self-
serving bias
ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Concepts:
Concepts:
More
Morethan
thanone
oneneed
needcan
can
bebeoperative
operativeatatthe
thesame
same
Core time.
time.
CoreNeeds
Needs
Existence: IfIfaahigher-level
higher-levelneed
need
Existence:provision
provisionof of cannot
basic
basicmaterial
material cannot be fulfilled,the
be fulfilled, the
requirements. desire
desiretotosatisfy
satisfyaalower-
lower-
requirements. level need increases.
level need increases.
Relatedness:
Relatedness:desire
desirefor
for
relationships.
relationships.
Growth:
Growth:desire
desirefor
for
personal
personaldevelopment.
development.
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Need Growth
Growth Needs
Needs Need
Progression Regression

Relatedness Needs
Relatedness Needs

Existence Needs
Existence Needs
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nPow

nAch nAff
 WORK PREFERENCES OF PERSONS HIGH IN NEED FOR
ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION, AND POWER

INDIVIDUAL NEED WORK PREFERENCES JOB EXAMPLE

- Individual responsibility Field sales person with

High need for
achievement - Challenging but achievable challenging quota and
goals opportunity to earn
individual bonus
- Feedback on performance
- Interpersonal relationships Customer service
High need for
- Opportunities to representative; member
affiliation
communicate of work unit subject to
group wage bonus plan

Formal position of
High need for - Control over other persons supervisory
power - Attention responsibility;
appointment as head
- Recognition of special task force or
committee
Matching Achievers and Jobs
 A Comparison of Internal Need Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s

Hierarchy ERG Two Factor Acquired
of Needs Theory Theory Needs
Theory

Self- Achievement
Actualization Growth
Motivator

Esteem Power
Relatedness
Belonging Affiliation
Hygiene
Security
Existence
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
 REASONING BEHIND GOAL SETTING
Direction - specific goals direct your focus to relevant
activities

Effort - need to devote more intense levels of effort

toward difficult goals - assumes people are goal driven

Persistence - specific, difficult goals encourage you to

persist longer at a task than would be the case without
such goals
Only possible exception is
high “uncertainty avoidance”
cultures.
 Goal Setting: Some Impressive Effects
100
Goal
level 94
90
Percentage of Maximum Weight

80 Performance at the goal level

was sustained seven years after
Carried on Each Trip

the goal was first set

70

60 There was a dramatic

improvement in per-
formance after a goal
50 was set

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Seven
Before goal After Goal Years Later
Four-Week Periods
Goal Setting Theory

Common Criticisms
• Goal-setting is more of a technique than a theory
of motivation
• Goal-setting can lead to:
� undesirable competition
� overemphasis on some aspects of performance and
neglect of others (e.g., quantity over quality)
Reinforcement Theory

Concepts:
Concepts:
Behavior
Behaviorisisenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbebemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
by
providing
providing(controlling)
(controlling)consequences.
consequences.
Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendstotobe
berepeated.
repeated.
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
 Some view as an explanation of motivation;
others limit it to how motivation is sustained over
time.

 Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or

cognitions. Managers can design work
environment to provide “reinforcers” that
strengthen desired behaviors & weaken
undesired behaviors. “Motivation is a function of
the environment”.

 Others allow for cognitions in that people can

observe rewards and punishments applied to
others. Called social learning or vicarious learning.
Motivation as a Form of Learning:
The Law of Effect

 Behavior that leads toward

rewards tends to be repeated
 Behavior that tends to lead
toward no rewards or toward
punishment tends to be avoided
 The type of reinforcer & the
timing (schedule) of
reinforcement are key
Reinforcers Which Strengthen Behavior: What managers
can do to increase the probability of behavior in the future

 a. Positive reinforcement--rewards contingent on

exhibiting the correct behavior.

 b. Avoidance Learning—withholding something

unpleasant when a desired behavior is engaged in
(e.g., an annoying alarm is avoided when a machine
is used properly, not operating in reverse). Or, using
social learning, noticing how engaging in some
behavior avoids an unpleasant outcome (e.g., arrive
on time and the boss does not yell). Text: Negative
reinforcement
Reinforcers Which Weaken Behavior: What
managers can do to decrease the probability of behavior in the future

a. Punishment--administering unpleasant
consequences
following an undesirable behavior.

b. Extinction--when there are no rewards for a

behavior which was previously rewarded.
Timing of Reinforcement

a. How quickly reinforcers work depends on their timing

b. Continuous. Used to “shape” new behaviors

c. But continuous reinforcement is impractical

1. Costly

2. Not as effective in sustaining behavior

over time
Flow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory
Ken Thomas’s Model of Intrinsic Motivation

 Employees are intrinsically motivated when

rewards an employee gets from work result from:
– Choice– the ability to freely self-select and
perform task activities.
– Competence– the sense of accomplishment
from skillfully performing chosen tasks or
activities.
– Meaningfulness– pursuing a task that matters
in the larger scheme of things.
– Progress– the feeling of significant
advancement in achieving the task’s purpose.
Equity Theory

Referent
Referent
Comparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside
Equity Theory (cont’d)
 Equity Theory: A Summary and Example

INEQUITABLE RELATIONSHIP
Andy is Bill is
overpaid underpaid
compared to Bill compared to Andy
Bill’s outcomes
Andy’s outcomes ($25,000/year)
($30,000/year) Bill’s inputs
Andy’s inputs (40 hours/week)
(40 hour/week)

Andy feels guilty Bill feels angry

EQUITABLE RELATIONSHIP
Andy is equitably paid Bill is equitably paid
compared to Bill compared to Andy
Andy’s outcomes Bill’s outcomes
($30,000/year) ($30,000/year)
Andy’s inputs Andy feels Bill feels Bill’s inputs
(40 hour/week) satisfied satisfied (40 hours/week)
Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices
Choicesfor
fordealing
dealingwith
withinequity:
inequity:
1.1. Change
Changeinputs
inputs(slack
(slackoff)
off)
2.2. Change
Changeoutcomes
outcomes(increase
(increaseoutput)
output)
3.3. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsof
ofself
self
4.4. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsofofothers
others
5.5. Choose
Chooseaadifferent
differentreferent
referentperson
person
6.6. Leave
Leavethe
thefield
field(quit
(quitthe
thejob)
job)
Equity Theory (cont’d)

Propositions
Propositionsrelating
relatingto
toinequitable
inequitablepay:
pay:
1.1. Given
GivenPayment
Paymentby byTime,
Time,overrewarded
overrewarded
employees
employeesproduce
producemore
morethan
thanequitably
equitably
rewarded
rewardedemployees.
employees.
2.2. Given
Givenpayment
paymentby byquantity
quantityof ofproduction,
production,
overrewarded
overrewardedemployees
employeesproduce
produceless,
less,but
but
do
dohigher
higherquality
qualitypiece
piecework.
work.
3.3. Given
GivenPayment
Paymentby Time,underrewarded
byTime, underrewardedhourlyhourly
employees
employeesproduce
producelower
lowerquality
qualitywork.
work.
4.4. Given
Givenpayment
paymentbybyquantity
quantityofofproduction,
production,
underrewarded
underrewardedemployees
employeesproduce
producelarger
larger
quantities
quantitiesof
oflower-quality
lower-qualitypiece
piecework
workthan
than
equitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees
employees
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy Theory
Involves 3 cognitions/perceptions:
1. Expectancy - the perceived probability that effort will
lead to task performance. E link

2. Instrumentality - the perceived probability that

performance will lead to rewards. I link

3. Valence - the anticipated value of a particular

outcome to an individual.

Effort Performance Rewards or

Outcomes

E link I link
 EXPECTANCY THEORY

E P Expectancy or P O Theory Valence

What is the probability What is the probability What value do I place

that I can perform at that my good performance on the potential
the required level will lead to outcomes? outcomes? (see
if I try? next slide)

Effort Performance Outcomes

 Overview of Expectancy Theory

Effort Performance Reward

Valence of
Expectancy X Instrumentality X reward

MOTIVATION
Abilities Role perceptions
and traits and opportunities

JOB
PERFORMANCE
Implications for Managers
• Need to offer employees valued rewards (high
valences)

• Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth

effort that you help them succeed. Maintain the E link
(Provide tools, info, support)

• Need to make sure that you follow through with

reward system that is tied to performance. Maintain
the I link (Differential rewards for performance)
Performance Dimensions