1 Wear Mechanisms

Lecture Series on Tribology
Dr. Alejandro Toro

Tribology and Surfaces Group
School of Materials Engineering
Faculty of Mines
National University of Colombia at Medellín
Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Series summary
 Basic concepts (2)
 Wear mechanisms, wear processes, wear maps
 Surface engineering (1)
 Surface analysis, surface modification and contact mechanics
 Surface properties (1)
 Friction (1)
 Physical concepts and engineering models
 Sliding wear and lubrication (2)
 Abrasion, Erosion and Cavitation (2)
 Surface Fatigue (1)
 Tribochemical Action (2)

Basic Concepts and Terminology

The Pioneers
Ancient Surface Engineers
Ancient Egypt, Syria

2000 B.C.
Lubrication with water for rock
transport

Introduction
Tribology tribos = rubbing
Study of the interaction of rubbing surfaces
Friction Wear Lubrication Contact Mechanics
3000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C.-300 A.D.
Hinges and other
Mineral oil
THE WHEEL friction-reducing lubrication
devices
Neolitic Bronze Age Iron Age
Period
Rock transport
Water lubrication
Mesopotamia
Egypt Greece-Rome
Stonehenge

Introduction
The Renaissance The Industrial

Revolution
XV-XVIIIth N XIXth Century XXth Century
e
Centuries
w
Wingquist Hardy
t
o
Timken Archard
n Tabor
Vapor Age Oil Age Nuclear Age Space Age
Leonardo Amontons Babbit Petrov

da Vinci Coulomb Hertz Kragelskii
Reynolds Stribeck

Damage
Type
Material loss
No material exchange Material gain • Extrusion
• Microstructural • Adhesion • Cutting
changes • Brittle Fracture
• Corrosion
• Plastic deformation • Fatigue Fracture
• Cracking • Diffusion and/or dissolution

Surface Damage Chart
Plastic
Deformation Cracking
Degradation
Structure
Changes Wear
Corrosion

Wear
Failure of a component caused by
an excessive stress in the
immediate vicinity of its surface
Usually not catastrophic Changes in shape and

size
Causes reduction of
efficiency Vibration, misalignment
Crack propagation
Fracture

Before going any further….
Define a
strategy
Do not be too
confident!
WEAR DIAGNOSIS FLOWCHART
Stachowiak-Batchelor, 2001
Wear and Economy
 Wear and friction losses account for up to
3% of GNP in industrialized countries
 In USA, tribological improvements in cars
can lead to energy savings of about 18%
(more than 15 billions per year!)
 Areas of major impact of wear and friction
losses: transportation, power generation,
turbo machinery and industrial processes

Wear Assessment Strategy
 Analysis of the worn surface
 Mechanical interactions (cutting, ploughing,…)
 Physical interactions (asperities interlocking,

plastic strain, cracking,…)
 Chemical interactions (oxidation, corrosion)
 Complex processes (nucleation and growth of

cracks)
Surface Analysis
How to identify the type of damage?
Usually, a combination of 2 or more types of
damage is present:
• Synergistic effects (corrosion + sliding wear;
oxidation + erosion)
• Sometimes, this combination can be helpful, e.g.
oxide layers reduce friction and cause wear
regimes to change from severe to mild
The analysis of the surface not necessarily reveals the

cause of the damage
Surface Analysis
m
100 - 10-3 Change of dimensions and shape

1st order irregularities
10-4 - 10-8 Surface quality
2nd to 5th order irregularities
Real Contact Area
10-7 – 10-11 Microstructure-Nanostructure
10-12 Atomic Interactions

Mass/Volume losses
Economic Impact of Wear on Industry
Abrasive>50%
Adhesive (15%)
INDUSTRIAL
WEAR
Chemical (5%) Erosive (8%)

Wear Processes
Low-stress Seizure Scuffing Fretting
2-body
Galling
Abrasive Adhesive
3-body Rolling
Scoring
High-stress
Industrial
Wear
Solid
Pitting impingement
Tribochemical Liquid
Erosive impingement
Oxidative
Impact
Slurry
Corrosive
erosion
Cavitation

Wear Processes
(According to the kinematics of the tribo-system)
Sliding Rolling Oscilating Impact Erosion
Erosion
Particles + Drops + Jet Low-angle High-angle

L,G L, G (L, G) erosion erosion

Wear processes vs. Wear Mechanisms
4 Basic WEAR Mechanisms, DIN 50320 Standard

Adhesion
Abrasion
Surface Fatigue
Tribo-chemical reaction Other classifications
Zum-Gahr
Hutchings
ASM Metals Handbook
Godfrey
Other classifications
I.M. Hutchings
 Wear involving hard particles: abrasion and erosion
 Sliding Wear
No single wear mechanisms!

K.H. Zum Gahr
• Grooving wear
• Sliding wear
• Rolling and sliding wear
• Erosive wear

ASM Handbook, Vol. 18, Tribology:
 Wear caused by particles or fluids
 Abrasive wear
 Erosion
 Solid particle erosion
 Liquid erosion
 Slurry erosion
 Cavitation Erosion
 Sliding Wear
Godfrey
• Adhesive, abrasive, erosive, fatigue,
delamination, corrosive wear, electro-corrosive,
fretting, cavitation, electric descharge, polishing
Rice
• Adhesive, abrasive, fatigue, corrosive, oxidative,
electrical

Wear Mechanisms
4 Basic Mechanisms
A Hard particle
Adhesion Abrasion
Formation and failure Mass removal due to
of interfacial joints ploughing and / or
scratching

Wear Mechanisms
Chemical
agent
Tribochemical action
Surface Fatigue
Corrosion of the
Plastic strain surfaces in contact due
accumulation and to environmental
formation of cracks conditions
beneath the surface

I. Adhesion
Systems where adhesive wear typically occurs
Cams and Gears

plungers
Journal Bearings
Draw dies
Cutting tools
Slides

Events sequence in adhesive wear
1. High local
contact pressures 2. Plastic
between asperities deformation of
asperities
3. Adhesion and
formation of 4. Failure of joints
joints and material
transfer
High loads and sliding speeds increase wear rates

Adhesion micro-mechanisms
Asperities
interlocking
(metal-metal)
Difusion through the

contact interface
(some polymers and metals)

Adhesion micro-mechanisms
Electron transfer
through the contact - - - - - -
interface + + + + +
(metals with different electron

band distributions)
Adsorption and
secondary bonding
- + - + - +
+ - + - + -
effects
- + - + - +
+ - + - + -
(polymers)

Adhesion
The Archard´s model :
m W
K
t H
K = probability of formation of a wear particle, or
Fraction of asperities in real contact
K<1
Adhesion
Adhesion +Oxidative Wear on a tool steel

surface after sliding against a plain carbon steel
II. Abrasion
Extruders Jaw crushers
Hydraulic Dies for Powder

systems Metallurgy
Chutes Slides

Abrasion
Micro-mechanisms
a) Groove formation
b) Prow formation
c) Prow formation +
Cutting
d) Cutting

Abrasion – Ductile Response
Typical abrasive
wear particle in
ductil materials
High 2-D or 3-D

plastic strain

Abrasion – Brittle Response
Abrasion marks on the surface of a watch glass

Abrasion
Transition from microploughing to Microcutting as a

function of the attack angle to critical attack angle ratio
Abrasion
Micro-mechanisms
Micro Ploughing:
The abrasive particle causes

lateral strain, which leads to
intense strain hardening
and high energy transfer.
Micro ploughing fab=0

Abrasion
Micro-mechanisms
Micro-cracking
Micro cracking
fab>1
 Seen in brittle materials
 Great amount of debris
 Removed volume > Plow volume

Erosion

Erosion Marks
Normal incidence Grazing incidence

APPLICATION PROBLEM
Chisel plows are

extensively used for
preparation of soils in
flatlands with very good
results in terms of
power consumption
efficiency and
homogeneity of the
soil.
•What is the dominant wear mechanism acting on these tools under normal operation?
•What materials would you recommend to manufacture them?
•Please consider as many variables as possible (manufacturing process, required
mechanical and physical properties, etc.).
•What information related to the soil would you need to consider?
APPLICATION PROBLEM
The shafts shown in figure were
removed from a hydraulic motor
due to excessive wear,
especially in regions marked A B
and B. In A, circumferential
marks are observed, while in B
the surface exhibits a
hammered-like aspect with A
disperse brown-colored spots.
•Please comment on the possible causes of these damages

•What would be the main wear mechanisms acting on the surfaces?
•What are the commonly-known wear types associated to this kind of components?
III. Surface Fatigue
Rails/wheels Bearings
Gears
Rollers
Printing
devices:
Pumping
Hammers,
systems
types,
platens

Surface Fatigue
SEM image showing fatigue cracks at the surface of an AISI

D1 tool steel used for cutting stainless steel sheets

Surface Fatigue
Fatigue pitting
Sub-surface cracks
Hertz Contact Stresses

Stress concentration in
Notch
internal deffects (inclussions,
precipitates).
Cracks When the crack reaches the
surface a pit is formed

Surface Fatigue
Fatigue pitting
Usually linked to abrasive or adhesive wear
Repeated sliding contact can

cause creation and propagation
of cracks at or nearby the
surface
Delamination model:
(Adhesion or Abrasion)
+
grieta
Surface Fatigue

IV. Tribochemical reactions
Clutches
Bearings
Slides Chains
Riveted Plate
joints springs
Tight-fitting surfaces are more vulnerable

Tribochemical reactions
Corrosion-erosion in Stainless steel

Tribochemical reactions
Substrate Kinetics of layer’s
Material formation
kinetics of
Layer’s VARIABLES Load
Removal
Layer-Substrate Layer-Substrate
Adhesion Fracture Toughness

Wear Maps
Typical Wear Map for unlubricated sliding

PV Wear Maps
Pin-on-disc tests, Steel-Steel pairs

Wear Maps
Wear modes Effect of temperature

EXAMPLES OF
INDUSTRIAL
PROBLEMS

Railway Systems
165000 Km
Wavelength 12 cm
Depth 0.1 mm 12000 Km
Noisy First undulation marks
Almost noiseless
Wheel diameter 85 cm
26 peaks around the contact periphery, Amplitude 0.1 mm
Flats 25- 40 mm long, 2 - 4 mm deep → Impact Forces > 400 KN

EXCENTRICITY
COMMON
DEFECTS
Hydraulic Systems
Erosion marks
(Beach Marks)
Rotors and housings of centrifugal pumps

Hydraulic Systems
Hardfacing Repair
Rotor of centrifugal pump for slurry transportation

Cavitation
Inadequate operating
conditions

SWIMMING ROLLS IN DYE PADDERS
(TEXTILE INDUSTRY)
Tribo-chemical attack
Lack of
adherence
Surface
Fatigue
Abrasion
SWIMMING ROLLS IN DYE PADDERS
(TEXTILE INDUSTRY)
Fracture
Solidified Lye Surface fatigue

Mining Industry
Dredge buckets, Gold mining industry
Complex carbide hardfacing repair

Amphibious Excavators

1 Wear Mechanisms

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Wear Mechanisms

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Series on Tribology

Dr. Alejandro Toro

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Ancient Egypt, Syria

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

The Renaissance The Industrial

Vapor Age Oil Age Nuclear Age Space Age

Leonardo Amontons Babbit Petrov

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Usually not catastrophic Changes in shape and

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

 Mechanical interactions (cutting, ploughing,…)

 Physical interactions (asperities interlocking,

 Chemical interactions (oxidation, corrosion)

 Complex processes (nucleation and growth of

The analysis of the surface not necessarily reveals the

100 - 10-3 Change of dimensions and shape

10-7 – 10-11 Microstructure-Nanostructure

10-12 Atomic Interactions

Chemical (5%) Erosive (8%)

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Sliding Rolling Oscilating Impact Erosion

Particles + Drops + Jet Low-angle High-angle

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

4 Basic WEAR Mechanisms, DIN 50320 Standard

No single wear mechanisms!

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Cams and Gears

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

High loads and sliding speeds increase wear rates

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Difusion through the

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

(metals with different electron

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Adhesion +Oxidative Wear on a tool steel

Hydraulic Dies for Powder

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

High 2-D or 3-D

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Abrasion marks on the surface of a watch glass

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Transition from microploughing to Microcutting as a

The abrasive particle causes

Micro ploughing fab=0

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Normal incidence Grazing incidence

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009

Chisel plows are

•Please comment on the possible causes of these damages

Lectures on Tribology - University of North Carolina at Charlotte - Fall 2009