Wind Energy

Introduction
• All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power),
ultimately comes from the sun

• The earth receives 1.74 x 1017 watts of power (per hour) from the
sun

• About one or 2 percent of this energy is converted to wind

energy (which is about 50-100 times more than the energy
converted to biomass by all plants on earth

• Differential heating of the earth’s surface

and atmosphere induces vertical and horizontal
air currents that are affected by the earth’s
rotation and contours of the land  WIND.
~ e.g.: Land Sea Breeze Cycle
 Introduction
• Wind results from air in motion. Air in motion arises from a pressure
gradient.

• On a global basis one primary forcing function causing surface winds from
the poles toward the equator is convective circulation.

• Solar radiation heats the air near the equator, and this low density heated air
is buoyed up.

• At the surface it is displaced by cooler more dense higher pressure air

flowing from the poles.

• In the upper atmosphere near the equator the air thus tend to flow back
toward the poles and away from the equator.

• The net result is a global convective circulation with surface winds from
north to south in the northern hemisphere.
 Introduction
• Local winds are caused by two mechanisms.

• The first is differential (unequal) heating of land and water by the sun due to
their unequal absorptivities and thermal time constants.

• During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air
over water. The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier,
cooler air rushes in to take its place, creating winds. At night, the winds are
reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than over water.

• The second mechanism of local winds is caused hills and mountain sides.
The air above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at night,
more rapidly than the air above the low lands. This causes heated air during
the day to rise along the slopes and relatively cool heavy air to flow down at
night.
 Introduction
• Winds are influenced by the ground surface at altitudes up to
100 m. Wind is slowed by the surface roughness and obstacles.
• When dealing with wind energy, we are concerned with surface
winds.
• A wind turbine obtains its power input by converting the force of
the wind into a torque (turning force) acting on the rotor blades.
• The amount of energy which the wind transfers to the rotor
depends on the density of the air, the rotor area, and the wind
speed.
• The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its mass
(or weight). The kinetic energy in the wind thus depends on the
density of the air, i.e. its mass per unit of volume.
In other words, the "heavier" the air, the more energy is received
by the turbine.
at 15° Celsius air weighs about 1.225 kg per cubic meter, but the
density decreases slightly with increasing humidity.
 Introduction
• Wind is a renewable Green Energy source

Load

kinetic Mechanical Electrical

Energy Energy Energy
 Introduction
• Wind is also a clean Abundant Source
• No Emissions, No Pollutions

carbon sulfur
dioxide dioxide

particulates
 Wind Energy & History
• Wind energy has been used
for thousands of years, for
sailing, pumping water,
grinding grain, etc.

• In the early 1900s, wind

turbines were used to
produce direct electric
current to small areas

• Oil Crisis of 1970s renewed

interest in wind turbines as a
cheap, clean, unlimited
source of energy
 Orientation
Turbines can be categorized into two overarching
classes based on the orientation of the rotor
Vertical Axis Horizontal Axis
 Wind Turbine Configurations

HAWT

VAWT

Boyle, G., Renewable Energy, 2nd ed., Oxford

University Press, 2004
Types

• 3 blades
• Fiberglass or carbon fiber
• Tail vane that furls
• Heavier (weight of turbine relative to
wind swept area), rugged turbine
• Permanent-magnet, induction
alternator
• Micro-, mini-, household-size turbines
 Vertical Axis
Turbines
Disadvantages
Advantages • Rotors generally near
• Omnidirectional ground where wind poorer
– Accepts wind from any • Centrifugal force stresses
angle blades
• Components can be • Poor self-starting capabilities
mounted at ground level • Requires support at top of
turbine rotor
– Ease of service
• Requires entire rotor to be
– Lighter weight towers removed to replace bearings
• Can theoretically use • Overall poor performance
less materials to and reliability
capture the same • Have never been
amount of wind commercially successful
Horizontal Axis
Wind Turbines
• Rotors are usually
Up-wind of tower
• Some machines
have down-wind
rotors, but only
commercially
available ones are
small turbines
 Common HAWT Construction

Rotor

• Blades are connected to a hub, which is connected to a shaft

• Rotational speed will depend on blade geometry, number of blades,
and wind speed (40 to 400 revolutions per minute typical speed
range)
• Gear box needed to increase speed to 1200-1800 RPM for generator
Components of HAWT
Components of Wind Turbine
• Turbine captures the wind's energy.
• Nacelle:
• electric generator
• mechanical gearing
• speed and wind sensor w/ control systems
• portions of the yaw mechanism
• Tower:
• electrical conduits and yaw motor (usually)
• supports the nacelle
• provides access to the nacelle for maintenance.
Nacelle
The Nacelle
houses:
1) Gearbox
2) Sensing &
control
systems
3) Portions of
the yaw
mechanism
4) Generator
• Wind power generators
convert wind energy
(mechanical energy) to
electrical energy.
• The generator is attached
at one end to the wind
turbine, which provides
the mechanical energy.
• At the other end, the
generator is connected to
the electrical grid.
• The generator needs to
have a cooling system to
make sure there is no
overheating.
SMALL GENERATORS:
 Require less force to turn than a larger ones, but give much lower
power output.
 Less efficient
i.e.. If you fit a large wind turbine rotor with a small generator it
will be producing electricity during many hours of the year, but it
will capture only a small part of the energy content of the wind at
high wind speeds.

LARGE GENERATORS:
 Very efficient at high wind speeds, but unable to turn at low wind
speeds.
i.e.. If the generator has larger coils, and/or a stronger internal
magnet, it will require more force (mechanical) to start in motion.
 Generator
May be fixed or variable speed:
– Fixed: Synchronous generator (Np=120f)
• Not well suited for wind systems as wind speed is variable.
• Slip rings and brushes points of wear.
– Variable speed: DC generator (mechanical commutator)
– Variable speed: Brushless DC generator
• Increasingly popular in small systems (no external power)
– Variable speed: Induction generator
• Widely used in large commercial applications for grid supply
• Requires AC source to generate the stator magnetic field
 Tower
• Support weight of the turbine and nacelle
– withstand vibrations and the cyclic stresses from
wind transients and loaded rotor yaw
• Small turbines: a few rotor diameters high
• Commercial sites: tower only slightly larger
– towers generally from 20-50 meters high
 Active vs. Passive
Yaw
• Active Yaw (all medium &
large turbines produced
today, & some small
turbines from Europe)
– Anemometer on nacelle tells
controller which way to point
rotor into the wind
– Yaw drive turns gears to
point rotor into wind
• Passive Yaw (Most small
turbines)
– Wind forces alone direct rotor
• Tail vanes
• Downwind turbines
 Pitch Control vs. Stall Control
• Pitch Control
– Blades rotate out of the
wind when wind speed
becomes too great
• Stall Control
– Blades are at a fixed
pitch that starts to stall
when wind speed is too
great
– Pitch can be adjusted for
particular location’s wind
regime
• Active Stall Control
– Many larger turbines
today have active pitch
control that turns the
blades towards stall
when wind speeds are
too great
Wind Turbines: Number of Blades

 Most common design is the three-bladed turbine. The most important reason is the
stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least three
blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic
properties of the machine.
 A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a machine
with a stiff structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost blade
bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the lowermost
blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
 Number of Blades – One
• Rotor must move more
rapidly to capture same
amount of wind
– Gearbox ratio reduced
– Added weight of
counterbalance negates
some benefits of lighter
design
– Higher speed means more
noise, visual, and wildlife
impacts
• Blades easier to install
because entire rotor can be
assembled on ground
• Captures 10% less energy
than two blade design
• Ultimately provide no cost
savings
 Number of Blades - Two
• Advantages &
disadvantages similar
to one blade
• Need teetering hub
and or shock
absorbers because of
gyroscopic
imbalances
• Capture 5% less
energy than three
blade designs
 Number of Blades - Three
• Balance of
gyroscopic forces
• Slower rotation
– increases gearbox
& transmission
costs
– More aesthetic,
less noise, fewer
bird strikes
Wind Turbines: Number of Blades

 Most common design is the three-bladed turbine. The most important reason is the
stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least three
blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic
properties of the machine.
 A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a machine
with a stiff structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost blade
bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the lowermost
blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
Blade Composition
Wood
Wood
– Strong, light weight,
cheap, abundant,
flexible
– Popular on do-it
yourself turbines
• Solid plank
• Laminates
• Veneers
• Composites
 Blade Composition
Metal
• Steel
– Heavy & expensive
• Aluminum
– Lighter-weight and easy
to work with
– Expensive
– Subject to metal fatigue
Blade Construction
Fiberglass
• Lightweight, strong,
inexpensive, good fatigue
characteristics
• Variety of manufacturing
processes
– Cloth over frame
– Pultrusion
– Filament winding to produce
spars
• Most modern large turbines
use fiberglass
 Hubs
The hub holds the rotor
together and transmits
motion to nacelle
Three important aspects
• How blades are attached
– Nearly all have
cantilevered hubs
(supported only at hub)
– Struts & Stays haven’t
proved worthwhile
• Fixed or Variable Pitch?
• Flexible or Rigid
Attachment
– Most are rigid
– Some two bladed
designs use teetering
hubs
 Direct Drive Enercon
E-70, 2.3 MW (right)
Drive Trains
Drive Trains transfer
power from rotor to the
generator
• Direct Drive (no
transmission)
– Quieter & more reliable
– Most small turbines GE 2.3 MW (above)
• Mechanical Multi-drive Clipper
Transmission Liberty 2.5 MW (right)
– Can have parallel or
planetary shafts
– Prone to failure due to
very high stresses
– Most large turbines
(except in Germany)
 “The rotor is the single most
critical element of any wind
Rotor Controls turbine… How a wind turbine
controls the forces acting on the
• Micro Turbines rotor, particularly in high winds, is
of the utmost importance to the
– May not have any long-term, reliable function of any
controls wind turbine.” Paul Gipe
– Blade flutter
• Small Turbines
– Furling (upwind) – rotor
moves to reduce frontal
area facing wind
– Coning (downwind) –
rotor blades come to a
sharper cone
– Passive pitch governors
– blades pitch out of wind
• Medium Turbines
– Aerodynamic Stall
– Mechanical Brakes
– Aerodynamic Brakes
 Towers
• Monopole (Nearly all
large turbines)
– Tubular Steel or
Concrete
• Lattice (many
Medium turbines)
– 20 ft. sections
• Guyed
– Lattice or monopole
• 3 guys minimum
– Tilt-up
• 4 guys
• Tilt-up monopole
 Wind Energy and Power
• Atmospheric pressure differences accelerate
and impart kinetic energy into the air
• Wind energy conversion machines (WEC)
convert wind energy into electrical or mechanical
forms
• How much power can we extract?
K.E. 1 (mass)  (velocity )2
Power   2

time time
mass
 density  area  velocity
time

AV 3
Power  1 2 (density )  area  (velocity )  3

2
P/m^2 = 6.1 x 10^-4 v^3

*The power in wind is

proportional to the cubic wind
speed ( v^3 ).
WHY?
~ Kinetic energy of an air mass
is proportional to v^2
~ Amount of air mass moving
past a given point is proportional
to wind velocity (v)
 Wind Power - Example

• Example:
V = 10 m/s
A = (2 m)2 = 4 m2
= 1.2 kg/m3

http://enneagon.org/footprint/jpg/dvc01w.jpg
http://z.about.com/d/gonewengland/1/0/5/C/leaf5.gif

AV 3
Power  1
2 ( density )  area  ( velocity ) 
3

2
 Wind Power – Example, cont.

P
1.2 kg m 3 4m 2 10 m s 
3

2
kg  m 2 kg  m m m
 2400  2400   2400 N 
s3 s2 s s
N m Theoretical Maximum
P  2400  2400 W
s
Betz Limit: 59.3% of the theoretical is the maximum amount
extractable by a wind energy conversion device (WEC)

PBetz  0.593 (2400W )  1423.2Practical

W Maximum
* An extra meter of tower will cost roughly 1,500 USD.
 A typical 600 kW turbine costs about $450,000.
 Installation costs are typically $125,000.
 Therefore, the total costs will be about $575,000.

 The average price for large, modern wind farms is

around $1,000 per kilowatt electrical power installed.

 Modern wind turbines are designed to work for some

120,000 hours of operation throughout their design
lifetime of 20 years. ( 13.7 years non-stop)

Maintenance costs are about 1.5-2.0 percent of the

original cost, per year.
 Wind Cost of Energy
12
COE (¢/kWh [constant 2000 $])

10

8
Low wind speed sites

6
Bulk Power Competitive
High wind Price Band
speed sites
4

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
 Wind Economics –
Determining Factors

• Wind Resource
• Financing and Ownership
Structure
• Taxes and Policy Incentives
• Plant Size: equipment,
installation and O&M
economies of scale
• Turbine size, model, and
tower height
• Green field or site expansion
• What is included: land,
transmission, ancillary
 Small Wind Economics
Simple Payback
Bergey Excel, 100 ft Tower
50 Net Metering Only, 12.5 mph
Net Metering Only, 16 mph
Simple Payback, Years

Tax Credit and Net Metering, 12.5 mph

40
Tax Credit and Net Metering, 16 mph
USDA Grant and Tax Credit, 12.5 mph
30 USDA Grant and Tax Credit, 16 mph

20

10

0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Electric Rate, ¢/kWh
 Economic Development
Impacts
• Land Lease Payments: 2-3% of gross
revenue $2500-4000/MW/year
• Local property tax revenue: 100 MW
brings in on the order of $500,000 - 1
million/yr
• 1-2 jobs/MW during construction
• 2-5 permanent O&M jobs per 50-100
MW
• Local construction and service
industry: concrete, towers usually
done locally
• Investment as equity owners:
 Wind Energy Finance
http://analysis.nrel.gov/windfinance/login.asp
Inputs Features
 General Assumptions (e.g.  Extensive help file explains each entry
Project size, Inflation rate)  Easily handles a variety of tax parameters
 Capital Costs  Exportable summaries and cash flows
 Operating Costs
 Financing Assumptions
 Tax Assumptions
 Constraining Assumptions (e.g.
Minimum IRR, Minimum Debt
Service Coverage Ratio)

Outputs
 Internal Rate of Return
 Debt Service Coverage Ratio
 Net Present Value
 Cash Flows
LARGE TURBINES:

• Able to deliver electricity at lower cost

than smaller turbines, because
foundation costs, planning costs, etc.
are independent of size.

• Well-suited for offshore wind plants.

• In areas where it is difficult to find sites,

one large turbine on a tall tower uses
the wind extremely efficiently.
SMALL TURBINES:
 Local electrical grids may not be able to handle the large electrical
output from a large turbine, so smaller turbines may be more
suitable.
 High costs for foundations for large turbines may not be
economical in some areas.
 Landscape considerations
Sizes and Applications

Small (10 kW)

• Homes Intermediate
• Farms (10-250 kW)
• Remote Application • Village Power
• Hybrid Systems
• Distributed Power

Large (660 kW - 6+MW)

• Central Station Wind Farms
• Distributed Power
• Community Wind
Large and Small Wind Turbines are
Different
• Large Turbines (500-1500 kW)
• Installed in “Windfarm” Arrays
Totaling 1 - 100 MW Large:
300 kW
• $1,000/kW; Designed for Low Cost of Turbine

Energy Small:
• Requires 6 m/s (13 mph) Average 10 kW
Turbine
Sites

• Small Turbines (0.3-100 kW)

• Installed in “Rural Residential” On-
Grid and Off-Grid Applications
• $2,500-5,000/kW; Designed for
Reliability / Low Maintenance
• Requires 4 m/s (9 mph) Average
Sites
 Motivations
• Energy crisis
– Shortage of conventional fossil fuel based
energy
– Escalating/rising cost of fossil fuels
• Environmental/Pollution/GHG Issues
– Greenhouse gas emission /Carbon Print
– Acid Rain/Smog/VOC-Micro-Particulates
– Water/Air/Soil Pollution &Health Hazards
 Motivations
• Large wind farm utilization is also
emerging (50MW-250 MW) Sized Using
Super Wind driven Turbines 1.6, 3.6, 5
MW Sizes
• Many new interface
Regulations/Standards/PQ Requirements
regarding full integration of large
distributed/dispersed Wind Farms into
Utility Grid.
 Motivations
• Challenges for Utility Grid–Wind Integration.
– Stochastically-Highly Variable wind power injected into
the Utility Grid.
– Increased Wind MW-Power penetration Level.
– Low SCR-Weak Distribution/Sub
Transmission/Transmission Networks
- Mostly of a Radial Configuration
- Large R/X ratio distribution Feeder with high Power
Losses (4-10 %), Voltage Regulation Problems/Power
Quality/Interference Issues.
– Required Reactive Power Compensation & Increased
Burden brought by the induction generator
 Drivers for Wind Power

• Declining Wind Costs

• Fuel Price Uncertainty
• Federal and State
Policies
• Economic
Development
• Green Power
• Energy Security
 Wind Turbines and the Landscape
- Large turbines don’t turn as fast  attract less attention
- City dwellers “dwell” on the attention attracted by windmills
 Sound from Wind Turbines
- Increasing tip speed  less sound
- The closest neighbor is usually 300 m  experiences almost no noise
 Birds often collide with high voltage overhead lines, masts, poles, and
windows of buildings. They are also killed by cars in traffic. However,
birds are seldom bothered by wind turbines.
 The only known site with bird collision problems is located in the
Altamont Pass in California.
 Danish Ministry of the Environment study revealed that power lines are
a much greater danger to birds than the wind turbines.
 Some birds even nest on cages on Wind Towers.
 Advantages of Wind Power

• The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to

produce electricity throughout the day. (Faster during the day)
• Energy output from a wind turbine will vary as the wind varies,
although the most rapid variations will to some extent be
compensated for by the inertia of the wind turbine rotor.
• Wind energy is a domestic, renewable source of energy that
generates no pollution and has little environmental impact. Up to
95 percent of land used for wind farms can also be used for other
profitable activities including ranching, farming and forestry.
• The decreasing cost of wind power and the growing interest in
renewable energy sources should ensure that wind power will
become a viable energy source in the United States and worldwide.
Wind-The Energy of the
Future?
 Wind’s Future
• Growing demand for small turbines,
especially in developing countries
• In rural areas it may be cheaper to install
and maintain hybrid power systems than
installing lightly used distribution lines
• Certification and standardized testing will
improve technology
• Commercial wind power growth will
advance small wind turbines as well