Unit - 4

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER

GENERATION
 GEO THERMAL POWER GENERATION
• Heat from the earth is an important energy source having environmental
and economic advantages over fossil and nuclear energy sources.

• The word "geothermal" comes from the Greek words geo, meaning earth,"
and therme, meaning "heat."
• Geothermal energy ultimately comes from radioactive decay in the core of
the Earth, which heats the Earth from the inside out, and from the sun,
which heats the surface.

• It can be used in three ways:

1. Geothermal electricity
2. Geothermal heating, through deep Earth pipes
3. Geothermal heating, through a heat pump.
• Geothermal power generating plants, which make use of the planet’s
interior heat, are becoming increasingly popular around the world.
• Geothermal energy is called a renewable energy source because the water
is replenished by rainfall, and the heat is continuously produced by the
earth.

• Geologists use many methods to find geothermal resources.

• Most of the geothermal activity in the world occurs in an area known as

the "Ring of Fire."

• The Ring of Fire rims the Pacific Ocean and is bounded by Japan, the
Philippines, the Aleutian Islands, North America, Central America, and
South America.

• Using geothermal energy to produce electricity is a relatively new industry.

It was initiated by a group of Italians in 1904.
• Their generator was powered by the natural steam erupting from the
earth.

• The first attempt to develop geothermal power in the United States came
in 1922 at The Geysers steam field in northern California.

• The project failed because the pipes and turbines of the day could not
stand up to the abrasion and corrosion of the particles and impurities that
were in the steam.

• Later, a small but successful hydrothermal plant opened at the Geysers in

1960. Today 28 plants are operating there.

• Electricity is now produced from geothermal energy in 21 countries,

including the United States
 How Does Geothermal Heat Get Up To Earth's Surface?
• At earth's core - 4,000 miles deep - temperatures may reach over 9,000
degrees F.

• Heat is continuously produced within the earth by the slow decay of

radioactive particles that is natural in all rocks.

• The heat from the earth's core continuously flows outward. It transfers
(conducts) to the surrounding layer of rock, the mantle.

• When temperatures and pressures become high enough, some mantle rock
melts, becoming magma.

• Then, because it is less dense than the surrounding rock, the magma rises,
moving slowly up toward the earth's crust, carrying the heat from below.
• Sometimes the hot magma reaches all the way to the surface, where we
know it as lava.

• But most often the magma remains below earth's crust, heating nearby
rock and water (rainwater that has seeped deep into the earth) -
sometimes as hot as 700 degrees F.

• Some of this hot geothermal water travels back up through faults and
cracks and reaches the earth's surface as hot springs or geysers, but most
of it stays deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock.

• This natural collection of hot water is called a geothermal reservoir.

 Today's Geothermal Energy

• There are four main kinds of geothermal resources: hydrothermal,

geopressure, hot dry rock, and magma.

• Hydrothermal resources are used for different energy purposes depending on

their temperature and how deep they are.

• Low Temperature: When the temperature of a hydrothermal resource is

around 50F and up, it can be used directly in spas or to heat buildings, grow
crops, warm fish ponds, to dry ceramics, vegetables.

• High Temperature: When the temperature of a hydrothermal resource is

around 220F and up, it is used to generate electricity.

• Most electricity-producing geothermal resources have temperatures from 300

to 700F, but geothermal reservoirs can reach nearly 1,000F.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

• Today we drill wells into the geothermal reservoirs to bring the hot water to
the surface.

• Geologists, geochemists, drillers and engineers do a lot of exploring and

testing to locate underground areas that contain this geothermal water, so
we'll know where to drill geothermal production wells.

• Then, once the hot water and/or steam travels up the wells to the surface,
they can be used to generate electricity in geothermal power plants or for
energy saving non-electrical purposes.

• Heat or hot water from geothermal reservoirs provides the force that spins the
turbine generators and produces electricity.

• The used geothermal water is then returned down an injection well into the
reservoir to be reheated, to maintain pressure, and to sustain the reservoir.
• The conversion technologies are dry steam, flash, and binary cycle.

• The type of conversion used depends on the state of the fluid and its
temperature.
 DRY TYPE
• Dry steam power plants systems were the first type of geothermal power
generation plants built.

• They use the steam from the geothermal reservoir as it comes from wells,
and route it directly through turbine/generator units to produce electricity.

• A "dry'" steam reservoir produces steam but very little water.

• The steam is piped directly into a "dry" steam power plant to provide the
force to spin the turbine generator.

• The steam eliminates the need to burn fossil fuels to run the turbine. These
plants emit only excess steam and very minor amounts of gases.
FIG. - Dry Steam power plant
 Flash Steam Power Plants
• Flash steam plants are the most common type of geothermal power
generation plants in operation today.

• A geothermal reservoir that produces mostly hot water is called a "hot

water reservoir" and is used in a "flash" power plant.

• Hydrothermal fluids above 360°F (182°C) can be used in flash plants to

make electricity.

• To generate electricity, Fluid is sprayed into a tank held at a much lower

pressure than the fluid, causing some of the fluid to rapidly vaporize, or
"flash."

• The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator.

• The steam is cooled and condensed and either used in the plant's cooling
system or injected back into the geothermal reservoir.
FIG.4.4 Shows Flash Steam Power Plants
 Binary-Cycle Power Plants
• A binary cycle power plant is used when the water in a hot water reservoir is
not hot enough (with temperatures between 250-360 degrees F) to flash into
steam.

• Instead, the lower-temperature hot water is used to heat a fluid that expands
when warmed

• i.e. in a binary system the geothermal water is passed through a heat

exchanger, where its heat is transferred into a second (binary) liquid, such as
isopentane, that boils at a lower temperature than water.

• When heated, the binary liquid flashes to vapor, which, like steam, expands
across. The turbine is powered from the expanded, pressurized fluid.

• Afterwards, the fluid is cooled and recycled to be heated over and over again.
In this closed loop cycle, there are no emissions to the air. the efficiency is
lower.
FIG. - Binary cycle power plant
 EFFICIENCY
• Advances made by industry and governmental research efforts have made
the expansion of geothermal resource potential and production possible.

• The efficiency of geothermal power plants has increased significantly since

the mid-1970’s.

• Most geothermal power plants can run at greater than 90% availability (i.e.
producing more than 90% of the time), but running at 97% or 98% can
increase maintenance costs.

• Higher-priced electricity justifies running the plant 98% of the time because
the resulting higher maintenance costs are recovered.
 ADVANTAGES OF USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

1. Non-Electric Ways:

• Using geothermal water 'directly' conserves energy and replaces the use of
polluting energy resources with clean ones.

• The main non-electric ways we use geothermal energy are DIRECT USES and
GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS.
 DIRECT USES
• Geothermal waters ranging from 50 degrees F to over 300 degrees F, are
used directly from the earth:

• To soothe aching muscles in hot springs, and health spas (balneology);

• To help grow flowers, vegetables, and other crops in greenhouses while

snow-drifts pile up outside (agriculture);

• To shorten the time needed for growing fish, shrimp, abalone and
alligators to maturity (aquaculture);

• To pasteurize milk, to dry onions and lumber and to wash wool (industrial
uses);

• Space heating of individual buildings and of entire districts, is - besides hot

spring bathing - the most common and the oldest direct use of nature's
hot water.
1. Storage & Transportation: Geothermal power plants don't require storage or
transportation of fuels.

2. Economic benefits: Geothermal power is homegrown, reducing our

dependence on foreign oil.
– Money does not have to be exported to import fuel for geothermal power
plants

3. Clean: Geothermal power plants do not have to burn fuels to manufacture

steam to turn the turbines. Generating electricity with geothermal energy
helps to conserve nonrenewable fossil

4. Easy on the land: Geothermal power plants use relatively small acreages i.e.
the land area required for geothermal power plants is smaller per megawatt
than for almost every other type of power plant.
5. Reliable. Geothermal "fuel'" - like the sun and the wind - is always where
the power plant is. Geothermal power plants are designed to run 24 hours
a day, all year.

6. Flexible. Geothermal power plants can have modular designs, with

additional units installed in increments when needed to fit growing
demand for electricity.

7. Helps Developing Countries Grow. Geothermal projects can offer all of

the above benefits to help developing countries grow without pollution.

8. Base load power: Geothermal power plants provide base load power.
Baseload power is power that electric utility companies must deliver all
day long. Base load geothermal plants sell electricity all the time, not only
during peak times when the demand for electricity is high.
 Economics of Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal power plants can produce electricity as cheaply as some

conventional power plants.

• Costs of a geothermal plant are heavily weighted toward early expenses,

rather than fuel to keep them running Initial construction costs for
geothermal power plants are high because geothermal wells and power
plants must be constructed at the same time.

• But the cost of producing electricity over time is lower because the price
and availability of the fuel is stable and predictable.

• The fuel does not have to be imported or transported to the power plant.
The power plant literally sits on top of its fuel source.
 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

• Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that does little damage

to the environment.

• Emissions of sulfur compounds from motor vehicles and fossil fuel plants
are also major contributors to acid rain.

• Geothermal power plants do not burn fuels to generate electricity as do

fossil fuel plants.

• Geothermal power plants release less than one to four percent of the
amount of carbon dioxide (C02) emitted by coal plants.

• Geothermal power plants are compatible with many environments. They

have been built in deserts, in the middle of crops, and in mountain.
 Photo Voltaic Power Generation

• Every day the sun showers Earth with several thousand times as much
energy as we use.

• Even the small amount that strikes our roof is many times as much as all
the energy that comes in through electric wires.

• In other words, the sun provides an endless supply of energy daily.

• With the sun straight overhead, a single acre of land receives some four
thousand horsepower, about equivalent to a large railroad locomotive.

• All our energy-except nuclear- comes originally from the sun.,

• Solar thermal: It is a collection of the sun's radiant energy to produce

heat, which is used to heat water or another working fluid, which drives
• Photovoltaic: It can provide the means with no moving parts to produce
your own electricity at home and even become independent of the local
power grid.

• The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek phos meaning "light", and
the name of the Italian physicist Volta, after whom the volts (and
consequently voltage) are named.

• Sunlight contains many thousand times more energy than humans use but
harnessing it can be expensive.

• The most common method, photovoltaic cells, which turn light directly in
electricity, Photovoltaic systems convert the sunlight to electricity through
the use of photovoltaic cells and modules.
• In 1839, during the Industrial Revolution, Henri Becquerel discovered the
photovoltaic effect, which explains how electricity can be generated from
sunlight.

• Working principle being "shining light on an electrode submerged in a

conductive solution would create an electric current."

• However it was not until 1883 that the first solar cell was built, by Charles
Fritts, who coated the semiconductor selenium with an extremely thin layer
of gold to form the junctions.

• The device was only around 1% efficient. As such, photovoltaic cells were
used mainly for the purposes of measuring light.

• Over 100 years later, in 1941, Russell Ohl patented the modern solar cell in
1946.

• The modern age of solar power technology arrived in 1954 when Bell
Laboratories experimentation with semiconductors accidentally found that
silicon doped with certain impurities was very sensitive to light.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

• A photovoltaic cell or a solar cell is a semiconductor device that converts

photons from the solar light into electricity.

• These cells rely on the photovoltaic effect, which describes how certain
materials can convert sunlight into electricity to absorb the energy of the sun
and cause current to flow between two oppositely charged layers.

• Crystalline Silicon and gallium arsenide are typical choices of materials for
solar cells.

• Gallium arsenide crystals are grown especially for photovoltaic use

Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two functions: photo
generation of charge carriers in a light-absorbing material, and separation of
the charge carriers to a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity.
This conversion is called the photovoltaic effect.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY

• A photovoltaic array or solar photovoltaic panel is a flat collection of solar

cells used for converting solar energy into electricity.

• Solar panels are constructed of the cells cut into appropriate shapes,
protected from radiation and handling damage on the front surface by
bonding on a cover glass, and cemented onto a substrate (a rigid panel or
a flexible blanket).

• Electrical connections are made in series or in parallel to determine total

output voltage.

• The cement and the substrate must be thermally conductive. Photovoltaic

arrays distinguish themselves from solar cells in that they are conveniently
sized, packaged and priced for easy installation and deployment in
domestic and light industrial applications.
• In a typical photovoltaic solar electricity system, the heat that is generated
as a by-product needs to be vented away from behind the photovoltaic
modules for the cells to generate electricity efficiently.

• It is desirable to minimize the heating because it reduces the operating

efficiency. This hot air is usually vented to atmosphere. In a heat recovery
system, a fan draws waste heat away from behind the operating
photovoltaic modules and directs it into the building for space heating.

• The expected working lifetime is around 40 years, the energy payback time
of a solar panel is anywhere from 1 to 30 years depending on the type and
where it is used .

• This means solar cells can be net energy producers and can "reproduce"
themselves (from just over once to more than 30 times) over their lifetime.
 Three Generations of Development of PV Cell
• The first generation photovoltaic: typically made using silicon consists of a
large-area, single layer p-n junction diode, which is capable of generating
usable electrical energy from light sources with the wavelengths of solar
light.

• Second generation photovoltaic: based on multiple layers of p-n junction

diodes.

• Each layer is designed to absorb a successively longer wavelength of light

(lower energy) absorbing more of the solar spectrum and increasing the
amount of electrical energy produced.

• Third generation photovoltaic: different from the other two.

 Equivalent circuit of Solar cell or PV cell

• An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a

diode.

• In practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series

resistance component are added to the model.

FIG. - Equivalent Circuit of PV Cell

• In the widely used p-n junction designed solar cells, the dominant mode
of charge carrier separation is by drift.

• In non-p-n junction designed solar cells (typical of the third generation of

solar cell), a general electrostatic field has been confirmed to be absent,
and the dominant mode of separation is via charge carrier diffusion.

FIG. - Schematic System of PV Cell

 Construction of PV Cell
• Crystalline Silicon and gallium arsenide are typical choices of materials for
solar cells.

• Single crystalline wafers which are used in the semiconductor industry can
be made into excellent high efficiency solar cells.

• Solar cells share many of the same processing and manufacturing

techniques as other semiconductor devices because they are also of same
nature.

• Making solar panels is still a delicate process, and it is for this reason that
major solar advances come into play, when advances in semiconductors
and photovoltaic design allowed increasingly efficient and affordable solar
cells to be developed.

• Light absorbing materials can often be used in multiple physical

configurations to take advantage of different light absorption and charge
separation mechanisms. Mainly there are three processing for
constructing a solar cell.
 Photovoltaic Power Generation (Solar Electricity)
• A solar cell produces electricity when it is exposed to light.

• Depending on the intensity of the light, a solar cell produces more or less
electricity.

• To compare solar cells and panels it is necessary to know the rated power of
such a cell or panel which is expressed in Watt peak or Wp.

• It is a measure of how much energy such a solar panel can produce under
standard conditions.

• Solar cell output power depends on multiple factors, such as the sun's
incidence angle etc.
FIG. - Electricity Generation (1) Sunlight
(2) Front contact
(3) Negative layer
(4) Diversion layer
(5) Positive layer
(6) Back contact
• Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi
conducting materials.

• Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow
through the material to produce electricity. The complementary positive
charges are also created which are called holes and flow in the direction
opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.

• An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of

direct current (DC) electricity. With the help of an inverter direct current is
converted into 120 or 230 V A.C.

• The AC power enters the utility panel in the house. The electricity is then
distributed to appliances or lights in the house.

• Each photon in the sunlight is ideally converted into an electron within the
semiconductor material forming the cell.
 ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCY
• A solar cell's energy conversion efficiency (η, "eta"), is the percentage of
power converted and collected, when a solar cell is connected to an
electrical circuit.

• Where
Pm = power converted (from absorbed light to electrical energy)
WE = input light irradiance under "standard" test conditions in W/m2
Ac = surface area of the solar cell in m²

• The "standard" solar radiation has a power density of 1000 watts per
square meter i.e. the solar radiation at the equator at solar noon on a clear
March or September day.
 FILL FACTOR

• Another defining term in the overall behavior of a solar cell is the fill factor
(FF).

• This is the ratio of the maximum power point divided by the open circuit
voltage (Voc) and the short circuit current (Isc):
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Power
• It is generated directly from the earth, totally non-polluting, has no moving
parts to break down, and have cells that last for decades i.e. does not
require much maintenance.

• First, wind and water power rely on turbines to turn generators to produce
electricity.

• Turbines and generators have moving parts that can break down, that
require maintenance, and are noisy.

• Their principal disadvantages are their high cost, requirement of energy

storage because it is not always available, and it is diffused.
 Applications
• Solar photovoltaic panels are frequently applied in satellite power.

• Photovoltaic arrays on building roofs can be connected through an

inverter to the electricity grid, often in a net metering arrangement

• Even in areas where power lines are nearby, solar may be a viable
alternative for people living near load centre.

• Solar power is used for many lighted highway signs. Look at any California
roadside call box, and you'll see a solar panel.
Introduction: BIOMASS

• Biomass is an important source of energy and the most important fuel

worldwide after coal, oil and natural gas.

• During photosynthesis, plants combine carbon dioxide from the air and
water from the ground to form carbohydrates, which form the building
blocks of biomass.

• Biomass is any sort of vegetation - trees, grasses, plant parts such as

leaves, stems and twigs, and ocean plants.

• These materials are renewable and sustainable, and can be used as a solid
fuel or converted into liquid or gaseous fuels to supply the electricity,
heating, transportation, and other energy market.
• The solar energy which is driving factor of photosynthesis is stored in the
chemical bonds of the structural components of biomass.

• Biomass averages 75% carbohydrates or sugars and 25% lignin (%age varies
among species).

• It can be used as a solid fuel, or converted into liquid or gaseous forms, for
the production of electric power, heat, chemicals, or fuels.
• The biomass cycle refers BIOMASS
to the cycle CYCLE
in which carbon is processed on the
planet.

• With the overuse of carbon-based fossil fuels, excessive carbon gasses are
being produced.

• Over the long evolution of our planet, carbon has been a primary
component of the soil structure plants, oceans and so on take carbon to
facilitate life.

• Since the plant biomass acts as a filter for carbon gases, we are creating a
crooked equation.

• The biomass cycle is the key to regulating carbon on our planet.

• The biomass cycle is, ironically, intertwined with the carbon cycle that is
causing global warming.

• The biomass cycle, however, is the filter or cleanser of the carbon cycle.
• The heat is converted HOW IS BIOMASS
to mechanical energy USED
in either a steam or gas turbine,
or an internal combustion engine, and the mechanical device is coupled to a
generator that produces electricity.

• The gas can then be used as fuel for cooking.

• For the purpose of generating electricity, gasifiers can be used to convert

biomass into methane and carbon monoxide gases.

• These can be burnt in a gas turbine, which emits relatively little pollution.

• Residues are the most economical biomass fuels for generating electricity.

• These are the organic byproducts of food, fiber, and forest production such
as sawdust, rice husks, and bagasse.
 FIG. - Process of Generating Electricity

• If one were to burn biomass efficiently, then oxygen from the atmosphere
combines with the carbon in plants to produce carbon dioxide and water.

• Biomass can produce electricity, heat, liquid fuels, gaseous fuels, and a
variety of useful chemicals.
 Biomass Electricity
• Scientists are trying to explore the advantages of biomass energy as an
alternative energy source as it is renewable and free from net CO2 emissions,
and is abundantly available on earth in the form of agricultural residue, city
garbage, cattle dung, firewood, etc.

• Biomass electricity is typically generated through boiler/steam turbine

plants, but with three key differences.

• The fuel is renewable, there is less than 0.1% sulfur in biomass fuels, and
less air pollutants are produced.

• Biomass fuels used in India account for about one third of the total fuel used
in the country, being the most important fuel used in over 90% of the rural
households and about 15% of the urban households.
• Biofuel is any fuel that derives from biomass, including living organisms or their
metabolic byproducts.

• It may be in solid (sugar cane residue), liquid (ethanol and bio diesel) or in gaseous
state (landfill gas i.e. methane).

• The cost to generate electricity from biomass varies depending on the type of
technology used, the size of the power plant, and the cost of the biomass fuel
supply.

• Biomass power systems range in size from a few KW for on-site generation units, up
to 80 MW for power plant.

• Co-firing refers to the practice of introducing biomass in high-efficiency coal fired

boilers as a supplementary energy source.

• For utilities and power generating companies with coal-fired capacity, co-firing with
biomass may represent one of the least-cost renewable energy options.
• Biomass gasification for power production involves heating biomass in an
oxygen-starved environment to produce a medium or low calorific gas.

• This "biogas" is then used as fuel in a combined cycle power generation

plant that includes a gas turbine topping cycle and a steam turbine
bottoming cycle.

• Biomass pyrolysis refers to a process where biomass is exposed to high

temperatures in the absence of air, causing the biomass to decompose.

• The end product of pyrolysis is a mixture of solids (char), liquids

(oxygenated oils), and gases (methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon
dioxide).
 ADVANTAGES OF USING BIOMASS
• A biomass plant emits very little sulfur dioxide (SO2), an acid rain.

• Biomass mixed with coal can significantly reduce the power plant's SO2
emissions compared to a coal-only operation.

• Reduced Nitrogen Oxide Emissions: By carefully adjusting the combustion

process.

• Carbon Emissions: Biomass Power generation can be viewed as a way to

recycle carbon.

• Reducing Other Emissions: Landfills produce methane (CH4) from

decomposing biomass materials.

• Methane, which is the main component of natural gas, is normally discharged

directly into the air, but it can be captured and used as a fuel to generate
electricity and heat.
 Disadvantages of Biomass
• It needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented and burned. All of these
steps require resources and an infrastructure

• All biomass energy sources create more carbon gases.

• Whether combusting Environmental Impactsin gasification, biomass
directly or engaged
resources do generate air emissions.

• If wood is the primary biomass resource, very little SO2 comes out of the
stack.

• NO2 emissions vary significantly among combustion facilities depending on

their design and controls.

• High NO2 rate, an effect of the high nitrogen content of many biomass
fuels, is one of the top air quality concerns associated with biomass.

• Biomass power plants also divert wood waste from landfills, which
reduces the productions and atmospheric release of methane, another
potent greenhouse gas.

• Another air quality concern associated with biomass plants is particulates.

Introduction: FUEL CELL
• A fuel cell is a high efficiency electrochemical energy conversion device that
converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy.

• Fuel in a suitable form is supplied to the negative electrode and oxygen

(mostly from air), is supplied to positive electrode.

• As long as fuel is supplied, the fuel cell will continue to generate power and
produce heat, with the help of catalysts.

• The fuel cell was first demonstrated in 1839 by Sir William Grove.

• In 1950s, fuel cells were used in the Apollo space programme because
nuclear system too dangerous, solar system too bulky, batteries were too
heavy.

• Fuel cell technology is becoming increasingly popular in power generation

and automotive applications.
• Advantages include:

– low fuel emissions and high efficiency.

– The fuel cell makes more efficient use of the fuel and produces fewer
pollutants e.g. reduced nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide emissions.

FIG. - Conversion of Energy

• The downward and upward route is a general route for combustion process
plus electricity generation in vehicles and power stations that use fossil
fuels.

• The horizontal route is for fuel cells. Fuel cell generates electricity by
electrochemical reactions.

• In most fuel cells, Hydrogen gas is the active material at the negative
electrode.

• The chemical process involved in that case is very simple

• Since the product is only water, fuel cells are very environmental-friendly.

• They can be incorporated into buildings to supply electricity during peak

power demand periods and also as emergency power generators.
• Also, the high reliability of fuel cell makes it a good choice for powering
facilities that need constant and stable electricity supply.

• In fact, using fuel cells to powers vehicles is a good way of reducing urban
pollution.

• Test vehicles are being developed by automotive companies to test the

potential of fuel cell technology.
 FUELS
• There are many types FOR for
of fuels FUEL
fuelCELL
cell: hydrogen, natural gas,
methanol, petrol.

• Fuel cells run on hydrogen, the simplest element and most plentiful gas in
the universe. Hydrogen is colorless, odorless and tasteless.

• The most promising fuel for the forthcoming fuel cell vehicles is methanol.

• The fuel can be converted to hydrogen by reforming process in a reformer

before feeding into the fuel cell.

• There are some problems regarding hydrogen fuel:

1. Because of its high energy content, hydrogen must be handled properly
2. Due to lightness, it is difficult to store a large amount in small space
3. Fuel cell needs to be refueled because it has low energy density
4. Hydrogen is a common by-product of industrial processes but new hydrogen
production plants needs to be built to meet the demand
 How Fuel Cell Works
• In a fuel cell, the chemical energy is provided by a fuel and an oxidant stored
outside the cell in which the chemical reactions take place.

• As long as the cell is supplied with fuel and oxidant, electrical power can be
obtained.

• In the case of batteries, the chemical energy is stored in substances located

inside them.

• When the energy has been converted to electrical energy, the battery must
be thrown away or recharged appropriately .

• The fundamental mechanism of fuel cell operation is the inverse of water

electrolysis reaction.
FIG. - Typical Fuel Cell
• The electrolyte definesTypesthe of
keyFuel Cell
properties, particularly operating
temperature, of the fuel cell.

• Based on the electrolyte used in the fuel cell, 5 major types of fuel cells
available:
– Proton Exchange Membrane (PEMFC)
– Alkaline (AFC)
– Phosphoric Acid (PAFC)
– Molten Carbonate (MCFC)
– Solid Oxide (SOFC)

• Aqueous electrolytes are used mostly in the low-temperature range and

pressurized at intermediate temperatures.

• Molten electrolytes are usually used at high temperature (occasionally

used at intermediate temperatures).
 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
• The electrolyte in this fuel cell is an ion exchange membrane which is a good
proton conductor.

• The only liquid in this fuel cell is water, hence corrosion problems are
minimized.

• Temperatures are limited to below 120ºC by the polymer properties; which,

combined with the water management requirements means that only H2
rich gas with minimal CO can be used as fuel.

• Water management in the membrane is crucial for efficient performance:

• The fuel cell must operate under conditions where the by-product water
does not evaporate faster than it is produced because the membrane must
be hydrated.
 Electrochemical Equation

 Advantages:
• Solid electrolyte reduces corrosion & management problems
• Deliver high power density
• Offers low weight, volume and cost
• Exhibit a relatively low sensitivity to orientation

 Disadvantages:
• Low temperature requires expensive catalyst
• High sensitivity to fuel impurities

 Application:
• Electric utility
• Portable power
• Transportation
 MAGNETO HYDRO DYNAMIC ( MHD)
Introduction

• The electric power demand is increasing, so it is important to

development an advanced power generation technology, which is
excellent in saving resource and environmental protection.

• The MHD power generation, which is able to achieve high efficiency by

converting the thermal energy of the fossil fuel into electricity directly, is a
clean and highly effective generation technology,

• Michael Faraday (1832) conducted MHD experiments using the brackish

water of the river Thames flowing through the Earth's magnetic field.
 PRINCIPLE OF MHD GENERATION
• When an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field, voltage is
induced in it and thereby an electric current will flow through the circuit if
load is connected across conductor.

• The electromagnetic induction principle need not be limited to solid

conductors, which are used, in conventional generators.

• In MHD generator, a gaseous conductor i.e. ionized gas replaces the solid
conductors.

• Electric energy conversion using movement of conduction fluid (usually gas

or combination of liquid and gas) through a magnetic field is called MHD
energy conversion.

• If ionized gas is passed at a high velocity through a magnetic field produced

by powerful magnets, voltage will be induced.
 POWER GENERATION
• When an electrically conductive fluid flows through the tube, in the
presence of a significant perpendicular magnetic field, a charge is induced in
the field, which can be drawn off as electrical power by placing the
electrodes on the sides at 900angles to the magnetic field.

• In MHD generator, the energy of motion of conducting fluid is derived from

heat obtained by burning a fossil fuel. MHD power is generated using two
cycles-open and closed cycles.

• In an open cycle the working fluid(air) is used once i.e. after generating
electricity, it is discharged to atmosphere through a chimney or stack.

• In a closed cycle, the working fluid (helium or argon) is used as working fluid
which can be recycled.
 OPEN CYCLE MHD SYSTEM
• The fuel is burnt to generate hot gas.

• The hot gas is then seeded with a small amount of cesium or potassium to
increase the conductivity of the gas.

• To produce high electrical conductivity, few hundred ppm of alkali metal

vapor is mixed.

• When this alkali metal ionizes, the gas becomes plasma.

• The plasma expands through the generator surrounded by powerful

magnets the positive and negative ions move to the opposite electrodes
during movement of gas and constitute an electric current.
• That current is of direct nature. So, an inverter is required to convert it
into alternating current before feeding it to an electrical grid.

• The rejected gas passes through an air heater for the purpose of
preheating the inlet air.

• The seed material is recovered for successive use.

Open cycle MHD System

• The exhaust gases are still at a high temperature.

• It is possible to use these gases to generate the steam in a steam turbine-

alternator unit for additional electrical power. This will increase the
efficiency of process.

• Such a cycle is known as hybrid cycle i.e. hybrid MHD-Steam plant open
cycle.

• The high temperature MHD process extracts part of the heat energy in the
plasma at the high temperature end.

• The gas leaving the MHD generator, still at relatively high temperatures, is
then used in a conventional bottoming steam plant.
 CLOSED CYCLE MHD SYSTEM

• Main disadvantages of open cycle system were a very chemically active flow
and very high temperature requirements.

• It is possible in closed cycle system to maintain the conduction negatively

charged particles in the flow at a higher temperature than the bulk gas
because the working medium is mixture of atomic gases.

• The complete system has three loops. On the extreme left side, heating
loop is there.

• In a gasifier, coal is gasified and the resulting gas is burnt in a combustor to

produce heat.

• In the first heat exchanger this heat is transferred to working fluid. After
passing through
Fig. - Closed Cycle MHD System
• After doing seeding working fluid is passed through MHD generator.

• The output obtained by the generator is D.C, which is converted into A.C. by
inverter.

• In the diffuser, the working fluid is reduced to a low subsonic speed.

• This fluid passes through the second heat exchanger where it gives its heat to
water.

• Thus steam is generated which partly drives a turbine ST1 to run the
compressor and partly expands in ST2 to drive the alternator.

• Electrical power is generated and working fluid, after passing through

compressor and intercooler, goes back to HX2 (second heat exchanger).
 GENERATOR EFFICIENCY
• The efficiency of the MHD generator in a single stage is estimated to be no
greater than 10 to 20 percent. This makes it unattractive.

• In series with a fossil fuel power plant a MHD generator could provide an
efficiency boost.

• By routing the exhaust gases of such a plant through a MHD generator

before traditional thermal to electrical conversion plants, it is estimated
that one can convert fossil fuels into electricity with an estimated efficiency
of up to 65 percent.

• Similarly, magneto hydrodynamic generator can be employed in series with

the nuclear reactor
 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS
• The employment of the MHD generator for large scale mass energy
conversion failed so far because of the economics and chemistry.

• A certain amount of electricity is required to maintain sustained magnetic

flux density over 1.0 tesla (T).

• Because of the high temperatures, the walls of the channel must be

constructed from an exceedingly heat-resistant substance to retard
oxidation.

• Similarly, the electrodes must be both conductive and heat-resistant at high

temperatures.
 THERMIONIC AND THERMOELECTRIC CONVERTERS
• Direct conversion of solar heat to electricity is possible through Thermionic
and thermoelectric converter.

 THERMIONIC POWER GENERATION:

• It is a form of direct conversion of heat energy to electrical energy.

• Thermonic converter utilizes the Thermonic emission effect i.e. emission of

electrons from heated metal surfaces.

• The efficiency is about 10%. If operating at higher temperatures high

efficiencies can be obtained of the order of 40%.
Q1 = Heat energy given to cathode
Q2 = Heat extracted from anode
 Fig. - Principle of Thermo
Fig. - Principle of Thermonic
Electric Converter
Converter