Text has cohesion if

The
cohesion
book

Sue Palmer
 Text has cohesion if
* it is clearly organised so readers
can find their way round the ideas

* it includes words and phrases that

act like ‘signposts’, helping readers
to follow the author’s train of
thought

* the writing ‘holds together’, so

that it is easy to read and
understand.
 Coherence
Headings and Some ways of Layout conventions
subheadings helping the show what sort
give an overview reader see how of text it is, e.g.
of the text’s your ideas are diary, letter,
organisation. organised.
newspaper, article.

Paragraph breaks Punctuation

show shifts of time, place, shows where one chunk of
viewpoint, topic, etc. meaning ends and another
begins. (See The Punctuation Book)

* Plan your writing in Presentational devices

advance on a skeleton
framework.
* Frequently re-read
your work to check
organisation is clear.
draw attention to sections of
text and make meaning clearer
e.g. speech bubbles,
timelines, flowcharts, etc.
bullet points,
boxed information.
 a shift of
time
Paragraphing a new topic or
aspect of a topic
Paragraph breaks one paragraph
Three weeks later…
In 1837,…
can help readers per category
to follow your
train of thought a new step or
a shift of by showing… stage in a
place process
Meanwhile, deep in
a new speaker
the forest,…
in direct speech
(See The Sentence Book)

a move from one

* In non-fiction writing, main point (or
a shift of plan paragraphs group of points
mood or beforehand.
to another
viewpoint * In fiction, beware of
all shifts of emphasis.
Suddenly, they leapt * * *
Into action…
* * *
Tom, on the other hand, was furious…
* * *
 conjunctions
Cohesive devices
Words and phrases sentence
These show links
can act like connectives
between ideas
within a sentence, signposts to help Words and phrases
e.g. when, readers see that show links
because, until, significant links in between one
sentence and the
although. the text. next, e.g.
However,
Connection words, phrases and sentences are important Consequently,
throughout written work. However, they are particularly
sentence On the other hand…
useful at the start of a new paragraph.
frames
punctuation Where nouns or verbs act as
signposts, you can make a
Some punctuation marks ‘sentence frame’, e.g.
(: ; -) can show links Begin by…
between clauses. The reason that… is…
Collect examples from texts Use these ‘signposts’ to link
you read. Read sentences your own ideas. Practise
aloud to get the feel of the the sentences in speech
language patterns. before you write.
 Time Links
Use time links to show the Vary the linking devices so
passage of time in fiction they guide the reader
and recounts. without being too obvious.

e.g. setting the scene time passing conclusion

sentence
connectives Yesterday,… Next,… Then,… Finally,…
On 4th June 2000,… After that,… Eventually,…
A few weeks later,…
One wintry morning,… At last,…
By the end of October,…

conjunctions As time went by,…

linking When Jane was When it was
clauses four years old,… After she had left,… all over,…

sentence It all began with Several weeks passed. It was the end of
frames an invitation. the adventure.
The clock
struck midnight.
 Cause and effect
conjunctions The room is cold because the window is open.
linking When the window is open, the room is cold.
clauses If the window is open, the room is cold.
The window is open so the room is cold.

sentence The window is open. Therefore, the room is cold.

connectives Consequently, the room is cold.
As a result, the room is cold.

sentence The window is open. This means that the room is cold.
frames This results in the room being cold.
This causes the room to be cold.
The reason (that) the room is cold is that the window is open.

Note that some sentence Cause and effect links are

frames lead to changes particularly important in
in the form of the verb. explanation writing.
 + Addition + Opposition
and as well too but yet
Also, Moreover, while whereas
Furthermore, However, Alternatively,
In addition, What is more, On the other hand,
Another point is … On the contrary,
A further feature is … The opposite point of view is…
These links are useful in
• descriptive writing
• texts which argue for or
against a point of view.

Comparison, e.g. Contrast, e.g.

____________ and _______ are
similar in several ways. One
similarity is that __________.
Another way in which they are
alike is ________. They are
both ____________. A further
feature they have in common
is____________.
____________ and _______ are
different in a number of ways.
For instance, __________ is
_______, while __________ is
____________. Another difference
is that ________. They also differ
in that _________ is ________,
whereas ________is ________.
 Sequence

In instructions and explanations, signpost stages in the process,

1 2 3 4
First,… Secondly,.. Next,… Finally,…
The next When the mixture Finish off
Begin by…
stage is… is ready… by…
 Clarity

Definitions and examples help make meaning clear,

Use key words and sentence frames to introduce them.

Introducing definitions Introducing examples

• a bloop, which is a …………… e.g. such as including
For example, For instance,
• a ……………, known as a bloop
This can be seen in …
• a …………… called a bloop
This is illustrated by …
• a bloop (a …………) Examples include …
 Holding text together 1
Nouns, noun phrases
Make sure pronouns are
and pronouns help bind consistent in person and
text together by number. If not, the
making references back text may be confusing
to read.
and forward.

Rob knocked on the door. If one wants to be a top-class

An old woman opened it and player, we have to practise
stared down at the boy. He because players do not make
smiled back. This must it to the top unless you
be Mrs Gunn. give a hundred per cent.

Use a variety of nouns, In impersonal text,

noun phrases and
pronouns to:
• avoid repetition
• improve the cohesion
of your writing.
stick to third person
pronouns. If you start
in the singular, don’t
drift into the plural.
 Holding text together 2
Some texts Some texts
are mostly Make sure verb tenses are mostly
past tense: are consistent. If not, present
• recount the text may be tense:
confusing to read. • instruction
• narrative
fiction • report
• explanation
Reported speech Direct speech
• persuasion
is in the is usually
past tense. present tense. • discussion

Exceptions The general said that

* most direct
speech and his men were fit “My men are fit
quotations
* references to and highly trained. and highly trained.
things which
continue to exist They would be They will be
beyond the
narrative ready when the ready when the Exceptions
* sudden changes * historical reports
into the present invasion began. invasion begins,” and explanations
tense for dramatic * reference to or
effect. said the general. examples from
the past.
Holding text together 3
Make sure your overall
style and viewpoint are
consistent, depending on
purpose and audience.

personal or impersonal

I, we, you third person

and/or
passive voice
(see The Complex Sentence Book)

informal or formal

(see The Standard English Book)

subjective or objective

your opinion just the facts

Skeleton Poster Books
for GRAMMAR

The End
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