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Discrete Mathematics
Chapter 1
Fundamental Principles of Counting
Textbook: Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics:
An Applied Introduction 5rd edition,
by Ralph P. Grimaldi
Course Outlines:
1. Fundamental Principles of Counting
2. Fundamentals of Logic
3. Set Theory
4. Mathematical Induction
5. Relations and Functions
6. Languages: Finite State Machines
7. The principle of Inclusion and Exclusion
8. Generating Functions
9. Recurrence Relations
10. Graph Theory
11. Number Theory
2
Chapter 1: Fundamental Principles of Counting
1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product
problem decompose combine
The Rule of Sum

第一件工作第二件工作
m ways n ways
can not be done simultaneously
then performing either task can be accomplished in any one of
m+n ways
3
E.g. 1.1: 40 textbooks on sociology

50 textbooks on anthropology
to select 1 book: 40+50 choices
What about selecting 2 books?
4
E.g. 1.2: things 1 2 3 ... k
ways m1 m2 m3 mk
select one of them: m1 +m2 +m3 +...+ mk ways
5
The Rule of Product

第一階段工作第二階段工作
m ways n ways
then performing this task can be accomplished in any one of

mn ways
6
The Rule of Product
E.g. 1.6. The license plate: 2 letters-4 digits
(a) no letter or digit can be repeated

26  25  10  9  8  7
(b) with repetitions allowed
26  26  10  10  10  10
(c) same as (b), but only vowels and even digits
52 x54
7
BASIC variables: single letter

or single letter+single digit
26+26x10=286
rule of sum rule of product
8
1.2 Permutations
E.g. 1.9. 10個學生,選5個出來排隊

10  9  8  7  6
Def 1.1 For an integer n≧0, n factorial (denoted n!) is defined by

0!=1,
n!=(n)(n-1)(n-2)...(3)(2)(1), for n≧1.
Beware how fast n! increases.
10!=3628800
210=1024
9
1.2 Permutations
Def 1.2 Given a collection of n distinct objects, any (linear)

arrangement of these objects is called a
permutation of the collection.
n個選r個的排列方法
n!
n  ( n  1)  ( n  2 )  . . . ( n  r  1)   P( n , r )
(n  r ) !
if repetitions are allowed: nr
10
1.2 Permutations
E.g. 1.11 permutation of BALL 4!/2!=12

E.g. 1.12 permutation of PEPPER 6!/(3!2!)=60
E.g. 1.13 permutation of MASSASAUGA 10!/(4!3!)=25200

if all 4 A’s are together 7!/3!=840
11
1.2 Permutations
E.g. 1.14 Number of Manhattan paths between

two points with integer coordinated
From (2,1) to (7,4): 3 Ups, 5 Rights

Each permutation of UUURRRRR is a path.
8!/(5!3!)=56
12
Combinatorial Proof
E.g. 1.15 Prove that if n and k are positive integers with n=2k,
then n!/2k is an integer.
Consider the n symbols x1,x1,x2,x2,...,xk,xk.
Their permutation is n! n!
 k
2
! 2
!. .
.
2! 2
k
must be an integer
13
circular permutation
E.g. 1.16 6 people are seated about a round table, how many
different circular arrangements are possible, if
arrangements are considered the same when one can
be obtained from the other by rotations?
ABCDEF,BCDEFA,CDEFAB,DEFABC,EFABCD,FABCDE
are the same arrangements circularly.
6!/6=5! (in general, n!/n)
14
circular permutation
E.g. 1.17 3 couples in a round table with alternating sex

F
3 ways
1 way M1
M3
total= 3  2  2  1 1
F2 2 ways
1 way F3
M2 2 ways
15
Exercise 1.1 and 1.2 on page 11.
11,22, 26, 28,30
16
1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem
When dealing with any counting problem, we should ask

ourselves about the importance of order in the problem.
When order is relevant, we think in terms of permutations and
arrangements and the rule of product. When order is not
relevant, combinations could play a key role in solving the
problem.
17

E.g. 1.19 (a)考試時,可回答十題中任七題的方法: C(10,7)
(b)前五題答三題,後五題答四題: C( 5,3)  C( 5,4)
(c)前五題至少答三題
•前五題答三題: C( 5,3)  C( 5,4)
•前五題答四題: C (5,4)  C (5,3) 加起來

•前五題答五題: C (5,5)  C (5,2)
18
E.g. 1.21 36個學生組成四隻球隊,每隊9人的方法

method 1.
36!
C( 36,9 )  C( 27 ,9 )  C(18,9 )  C( 9 ,9 ) 
9 !9 !9 !9 !
method 2. students 1 2 3 4 ... 36
teams ABCD ... B (9 As,9Bs,9Cs,9Ds)
19

Select 3 cards from a deck of playing cards without replacement:
order of selection is relevant: P(52,3)= 52  51 50
order of selection is irrelevant: P(52,3)/3!=C(52,3)

P( n , r ) n!
C( n , r )   ,0  r  n
r! r !( n  r ) !
20

11!
E.g. 1.22 TALLAHASSEE permutation= 3!2 !2 !2 !1!1!  831,600
without adjacent A: 8!  9
 
2 !2 !2 !  3
disregard A first 9 positions for 3 A
to be inserted
Challenge: Mississippi相同字母不相鄰的排列?
(Write a program to verify your answer.)
21
The Sigma notation

n n
 a i   a j  a1  a 2  a n
i1 j 1
For example, n n n ( n  1)
 1  n ,  i  1  2 n 
i 1 i1 2
n n ( n  1)( 2 n  1) n 3
i  ,i  ?
2
i 1 6 i 1
You will learn how to compute something like that later.
22
The Sigma notation

n n
c  ai   cai (constant can move out)
i 1 i 1
n n
But, not i  ai   iai
i 1 i 1
n n n
 ( a i  bi )   a i   bi
i 1 i 1 i 1
23
The Sigma notation

n
For example,  ( 2n  1)( n  2)  n(2n  1)(n  2)
i 1
n n
 ( 2i  1)(i  2 )   ( 2i 2
 3i  2) 
i 1 i 1
n n n
2  i  3 i  2  1
2
i 1 i 1 i 1
24
The Sigma notation

n m m n
  ai b j   ai  b j
j 1i 1 i 1 j 1
n j n
  a i b j   b j ( a1  a 2  a j ) 
j 1i 1 j 1
n
a1b1  ( a1  a 2 ) b2  bn  a i
i 1
25
The Pi notation
n
 a i  a1  a 2  a n
i 1
n n
 ca i  c  a i
n
i 1 i 1
n n n
 ( a i  bi )   a i   bi
i 1 i 1 i 1
26

E.g. 1.23 alphabets: a,b,c,d,...,1,2,3,...
symbols: a,b,c,ab,cde,...
strings: concatenation of symbols, ababab,bcbdgfh,...
languages: set of strings

{0,1,00,01,10,11,000,001,010,011,100,101,...}
={all strings made up from 0 and 1}
27

E.g. 1.23 由0,1,2構成的長度為 n的string有3n個
if x  x1x2  xn ,
n
define wt ( x)   xi
i 1
for example, wt(000)=0, wt(1200)=3
28

E.g. 1.23 Among the 310 strings of length 10, how many have
even weight?
Ans.: the number of 1’s must be even
number of 1’s=i (i=0,2,4,6,8, or 10)

10  10i
number of strings=  2
i  Select i positions for the
5  10 
total=   2102n i 1’s
n 0  2n 
29

Be careful not to overcount.
E.g. 1.24 Select 5 cards which have at least 1 club.
 52  39
reasoning (a): all minus no-club       2 ,023,203
 5  5
reasoning (b): select 1 club first, then other 4 cards
 13  51
     3,248,700 What went wrong?
 1 4 
30

for reasoning (b):
select C3 then C5,CK,H7,SJ
select C5 then C3,CK,H7,SJ All are the same selections.
select CK then C5,C3,H7,SJ
31

for reasoning (b): correct computation
5 13  39 
     2,023,203
i 1 i  5  i 
number of clubs selected non-clubs
32

 n  n 
    Try to prove it by combinatorial reasoning.
 r   n  r
Theorem 1.1 The Binomial Theorem

n  n k n k
( x  y)     x y
n
k  0  k
binomial coefficient Select k x’s from (x+y)n
33

E.g. 1.25 The coefficient of x5y2 in (x+y)7 is       21
7 7
 5  2
 7 5
The coefficient of a5b2 in (2a-3b)7 is   2 ( 3) 2
 5
34
Corollary 1.1. For any integer n>0,
(a)  n   n   n  2 n , and

      (x=y=1)
 0  1  n
 n  n  n n  n
(b)          ( 1)    0.
 0  1  2  n
(x=1,y=-1)
35
Theorem 1.2 The multinomial theorem

For positive integer n,t, the coefficient of x1n1 x2n2 x3n3  xtnt
in the expansion of ( x1  x 2  x t ) n

is
where n1  n 2  n t  n .
n!
,
n1!n 2 ! nt !
36

2 3 2 5
E.g.. 1.26 The coefficient of a b c d in
( a  2b  3c  2d  5) 16 is
16!
(1) 2 ( 2) 3 ( 3) 2 ( 2) 5 ( 5) 4
2 !3!2 !5!4 !
37
Exercise 1.3. 9,18, 20,21, 30
1.4 Combinations with Repetition: Distributions
E.g. 1.27 7個人買食物,有四種食物可選擇,有幾種買法?
first second third fourth

xxx xxxx
xx x x xxx 10!  4  7  1
 
7!3!  7 
xxxx xxx
for x for
38
In general, the number of selections, with repetitions, of r

objects from n distinct objects are:
( n  r  1)!  n  r  1
 
r !( n  1)!  r 
39

E.g. 1.29 Distribute $1000 to 4 persons (in unit of $100)
(a) no restriction (b) at least $100 for anyone
 4  10  1  4  6  1
   
 10   6 
(c) at least $100 for anyone, Sam has at least $500
 4  2  1  3  2  1  3  1  1  3  0  1
       
 2   2   1   0 
40

E.g. 1.31
A message: 12 different symbols+45 blanks
Transmitted at least 3 blanks between consecutive symbols

11  12  1 45  3  11  12 blanks
through
network  
(12 !) 
 12 
available positions
41

E.g. 1.32 Determine all integer solutions to the equation
x1  x2  x3  x4  7, where xi  0 for all 1  i  4.
select with repetition from x1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 7 times

For example, if x1 is selected twice, then x1  2
in the final solution. Therefore, C(4+7-1,7)=120
42

Equivalence of the following:
(a) the number of integer solutions of the equation
x1  x2    xn  r , xi  0, 1  i  n
(b) the number of selections, with repetition, of size r from a collection
of size n
(c) the number of ways r identical objects can be distributed among
n distinct containers
43
E.g. 1.34 How many nonnegative integer solutions are there to

the inequality x1  x 2  x 6  10 ?
It is equivalent to
x1  x2    x6  x7  10, 0  xi , 1  i  6, 0  x7
which can be transformed to y1  y 2  y 6  y 7  9,
where y i  x i fo 1  i  6
an y 7  x 7  1r C(7+9-
d 1,9)=5005
44
E.g. 1.35 How many terms there are in the expansion of

( w  x  y  z) 10 ?
Each distinct term is of the form

 10  n1 n2 n3 n4
  w x y z , where 0  n i for
 n1 , n 2 , n 3 , n 4 
1  i  4, and n1  n 2  n 3  n 4  10.
Therefore, C(4+10-1,10)=286
45

E.g. 1.36 number of compositions of an positive integer,
where the order of the summands is considered relevant.
4=3+1=1+3=2+2=2+1+1=1+2+1=1+1+2=1+1+1+1
4 has 8 compositions.
If order is irrelevant, 4 has 5 partitions.
46
What about 7? How many compositions?

w1  w 2  7 , w i  0  2  5  1
  two summands
x1  x 2  5, x i  0  5 
 3  4  1
x1  x 2  x 3  4   three summands
 4 
x1  x 2  x 3  x 4  3  4  3  1
  four summands
 3 
6 6 
Ans.:     2 6
k 0  k 
47

E.g. 1.37 For i:=1 to 20 do How many times is this
For j:=1 to i do writeln executed?
For k:=1 to j do
writeln(i*j+k);
any i,j,k satisfying 1  k  j  i  20 will do
That is, select 3 numbers, with repetition, from 20 numbers.
C(20+3-1,3)=C(22,3)=1540
48
Exercise 1.4
11,12,19,20,22,25,28
Supplementary Exercises
21,24,29
49
Summary select or order r objects from n distinct objects

order is repetitions
relevant are allowed type of result formula
P( n , r )  n !/ ( n  r ) !,
YES NO permutation
0 r  n
YES YES arrangement n r , n, r  0
NO NO combination C( n , r )  n !/[ r !( n  r ) !]
0 r  n
combination  n  r  1
NO YES with repetition  
 r 
50

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Discrete Mathematics

1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product

problem decompose combine

The Rule of Sum

1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product

E.g. 1.1: 40 textbooks on sociology

to select 1 book: 40+50 choices

What about selecting 2 books?

1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product

E.g. 1.2: things 1 2 3 ... k

select one of them: m1 +m2 +m3 +...+ mk ways

1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product

The Rule of Product

then performing this task can be accomplished in any one of

1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product

The Rule of Product

E.g. 1.6. The license plate: 2 letters-4 digits

(a) no letter or digit can be repeated

1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product

BASIC variables: single letter

rule of sum rule of product

E.g. 1.9. 10個學生,選5個出來排隊

Def 1.1 For an integer n≧0, n factorial (denoted n!) is defined by

Def 1.2 Given a collection of n distinct objects, any (linear)

E.g. 1.11 permutation of BALL 4!/2!=12

E.g. 1.13 permutation of MASSASAUGA 10!/(4!3!)=25200

E.g. 1.14 Number of Manhattan paths between

From (2,1) to (7,4): 3 Ups, 5 Rights

Consider the n symbols x1,x1,x2,x2,...,xk,xk.

E.g. 1.17 3 couples in a round table with alternating sex

Exercise 1.1 and 1.2 on page 11.

11,22, 26, 28,30

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

When dealing with any counting problem, we should ask

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

•前五題答四題: C (5,4)  C (5,3) 加起來

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

E.g. 1.21 36個學生組成四隻球隊,每隊9人的方法

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

order of selection is relevant: P(52,3)= 52  51 50

order of selection is irrelevant: P(52,3)/3!=C(52,3)

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

The Sigma notation

You will learn how to compute something like that later.

The Sigma notation

The Sigma notation

The Sigma notation

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

strings: concatenation of symbols, ababab,bcbdgfh,...

languages: set of strings

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

for example, wt(000)=0, wt(1200)=3

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

Ans.: the number of 1’s must be even

number of 1’s=i (i=0,2,4,6,8, or 10)

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

select C5 then C3,CK,H7,SJ All are the same selections.

select CK then C5,C3,H7,SJ

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

number of clubs selected non-clubs

1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem