ALLOYING

Thanks ELEMENTS

By

S. Balakrishnan
Alloying Elements

Forms of Substances

Element
Mixture
Compound
Alloy

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Alloying Elements

Element

Smallest constituent of all matter

Cannot be further separated into simpler substances

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Alloying Elements

Mixture

A substance consisting of two or more substances mixed

together
Need not be in any fixed proportions
Constituent substances are not held by chemical bonding
Mixture will exhibit properties of all constituent substances

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Alloying Elements

Compound

A substance formed by chemical bonding of two or more

elements
Ingredients are present in definite proportion by mass
Compounds may exhibit properties altogether different than
the constituent substances

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Alloying Elements

Alloy

A mixture containing two or more metallic elements or

metallic and nonmetallic elements
Usually fused together or dissolving into each other when
molten

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Alloying Elements

Steel

Alloy of Iron with small amounts of Carbon

Widely used in engineering and construction applications

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Alloying Elements

Steel

Unalloyed Steels
Alloyed Steel (Alloy Steel)

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Alloying Elements

Unalloyed Steels

Steels with deciding content of individual elements is lower

than the ‘limit content’.

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Alloying Elements

Unalloyed Steels

Specified Elements Limit Content % by Mass

Al Aluminium 0.10
B Boron 0.0008
Co Cobalt 0.10
Cr Chromium 0.30
Cu Copper 0.40
Mn Manganese 1.65
Mo Molybdenum 0.08
Nb Niobium 0.06
Ni Nickel 0.30
Pb Lead 0.40
Si Silicon 0.50
Ti Titanium 0.05
V Vanadium 0.10
W Tungsten 0.10
Zr Zirconium 0.05
Except Carbon, Nitrogen,
Others 0.05
Phosphorus and Sulphur. LOGO
Alloying Elements

Alloy Steels

Steels with deciding content of individual elements is equal

to or more than the ‘limit content’.

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Alloying Elements

Low Alloy Steels

Steels with total content of alloying elements below 5%.
Medium Alloy Steels
Steels with total content of alloying elements equal to or
more than 5% but equal to or less than 10%.
High Alloy Steels
Steels with total content of alloying elements more than 10%.

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Alloying Elements

Common Alloying Elements

Aluminium
Chromium
Cobalt
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Phosphorous
Silicon
Titanium
Tungsten
Vanadium

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Alloying Elements

Properties

Abrasion Resistance
Brittleness
Carbide Formation
Corrosion Resistance
Grain Growth
Hardenability
Machinability
Magnetism
Nitrability
Oxidation resistance

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Alloying Elements

Properties

Red hardness
Strength at high temperature
Wear
Toughness

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Material Properties

Hardness

The property of the material to resist indentation /

penetration under load
Abrasion is the process of scratching, wearing down or
rubbing away. Abrasion can be an undesirable effect of
exposure to normal use or exposure to the elements.
Abrasion Resistance is the property of any material
associated with its ability to resists abrasion.
Higher the Hardness, higher will be the Abrasion Resistance.

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Material Properties

Hardness

Hardness increases with decreasing particle size. However,

below a critical grain-size, hardness decreases with
decreasing grain size.

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Material Properties

Red Hardness

Red Hardness or Hot Hardness is the property of any

material to retain its hardness even at elevated temperatures.

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Material Properties

Hardenability

The hardenability of a metal alloy is the depth up to which a

material is hardened after performing heat treatment
process.
It is an indication of how deep into the material a certain
hardness can be achieved.
It is an important property for welding, since it is inversely
proportional to weldability, that is, the ease of welding a
material.

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Material Properties

Strength

The strength of a material is its ability to withstand the

applied stress without failure.

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Material Properties

Yield Strength

Yield strength is the lowest stress that gives permanent

deformation in a material.

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Material Properties

Ultimate Strength

Ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering

stress-strain curve corresponding to the maximum stress

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Material Properties

Strength at High Temperature

Strength at High Temperature refers to the property of

material’s strength at elevated temperature.

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Material Properties

Microstructure

In reality, a given specimen of a metal never contains a

consistent single crystal lattice
A given sample of metal will contain many grains, with each
grain having a fairly consistent array pattern

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Material Properties

Defects in Microstructure

Point Defects
Vacancy defect
Substitution defect
Interstitial defect
Line Defects
Edge Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

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Material Properties

Defects in Microstructure

Higher amount of defects leads to lesser resistance for

deformation and hence lesser hardness

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Material Properties

Grain Boundaries

Act as pinning points resisting further dislocation

propagation.
Grain boundary is also much more disordered than
inside the grain which also prevents the dislocations
from moving in a continuous slip plane.

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Material Properties

Brittleness

It is the tendency of a material to fracture with very

little or no detectable deformation beforehand.

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Material Properties

Brittleness

Technically, a material can be both brittle and strong.

However, in everyday usage "brittleness" usually
refers to the tendency to fracture under a small
amount of force, which exhibits both brittleness and a
lack of strength.

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Material Properties

Toughness

The property of the material which indicates the

maximum amount of energy it can absorb before
fracturing, which is different from the amount of force
that can be applied.

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Material Properties

Toughness

Ductile and malleable materials are tougher than brittle

materials because elastic and plastic deformations
allow to absorb large amounts of energy.

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Material Properties

Impact Strength

The property of the material in withstanding sudden

application of load (Shock Load) in terms of energy,
before fracture.

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Material Properties

Fatigue Strength

The number of reversals of load before failure occurs

in a material under a load well within its elastic limit
Fatigue strength depends upon the range of stress

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Material Properties

Fatigue Strength

Progressive and localized structural damage that

occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.
The nominal maximum stress values are less than the
ultimate tensile stress limit and may be below the yield
stress limit of the material.

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Material Properties

Fatigue Strength

Faults are introduced at the molecular level with each

deformation. After many deformations, cracks will
begin to appear, followed soon after by a fracture, with
no apparent plastic deformation in between.

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Material Properties

Fatigue Strength

The shape of the structure will significantly affect the

fatigue life; square holes or sharp corners will lead to
elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can
initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets
are therefore important to increase the fatigue strength
of the structure.

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Material Properties

Fatigue Strength

When the loads are above a certain threshold,

microscopic cracks will begin to form at the surface.
Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, and the
structure will suddenly fracture.

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Material Properties

Creep

The slow permanent deformation of a material which

occurs when subjected to stress below the yield point
for a prolonged period.

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Material Properties

Carbide Formation

Some of the Alloying Elements form stable carbide by

heat treatment.

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Material Properties

Corrosion Resistance

Corrosion is the gradual destruction of materials by

chemical reaction with its environment.
Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known
example of electrochemical corrosion.
Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials
and structures including strength, appearance and
permeability to liquids and gases.
Corrosion Resistance to the ability of the material to
resist corrosion.

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Material Properties

Machinability

Machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can

be machined to an acceptable surface finish.
Materials with good machinability require little power
to cut, can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish,
and do not wear the tooling much.

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Material Properties

Magnetism

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that

includes forces exerted by magnets on other magnets.
Materials exhibiting magnetic properties are called
magnetic materials and they can be either permanent
or temporary.
Substances that are not affected by magnetic fields
are known as non-magnetic substances like copper,
aluminium, and plastic.

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Material Properties

Nitridability

Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses

nitrogen into the surface of a metal to create a case
hardened surface.
Ability to get nitrided is referred as Nitridability.

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Material Properties

Oxidation Resistance

In steels, Oxidation Resistance primarily refers to its

ability to resist formation ferrous / ferric oxides by
combining with oxygen.

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Material Properties

Wear

Wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material

on a solid surface performed by the action of another
surface.
Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and
more specifically the removal and deformation of
material on a surface as a result of mechanical action
of the opposite surface.

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Aluminium in Steel

Restricts grain growth

Increases ability of getting nitrided

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Chromium in Steel

Increases corrosion resistance

Increases oxidation resistance
Increases strength at high temperature
Resists wear and abrasion
Increases hardenability

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Effects of Cobalt in Steel

Increases red hardness

Common Alloying element in high grade High Speed Steels

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Manganese in Steel

Increases hardenability inexpensively

Counteracts effect of brittleness due to Sulphur &
Phosphorus
High manganese with high carbon produces very high wear
and abrasion resistance
Renders austenitic steels non magnetic

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Molybdenum in Steel

Increases red hardness

Increases hot and creep strength
Enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steels
Increases depth of hardening
Resists wear and abrasion
Increases toughness
Inhibits grain growth

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Nickel in Steel

Increases strength and toughness of unhardened or

annealed steels
Toughens steels particularly at low temperatures
Renders austenitic steels non magnetic
Increases corrosion resistance

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Phosphorus in Steel

Increases resistance to corrosion

Improves machinability
Strengthens low carbon steels

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Silicon in Steel

Alloy for electrical and magnetic sheet steels

Improves oxidation resistance
Strengthens low alloy steels

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Effects of Titanium in Steel

Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium

Chromium steels
Prevents formation of austenite in high Chromium steels
Highest carbide forming tendency

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Effects of Tungsten in Steel

Forms hard and abrasion resistance particles in tool steels

and high speed steels
Promotes red hardness and hot strength
Increases melting point

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Alloying Elements

Effects of Vanadium in Steel

Promotes fine grain structure

Increases hardenability very strongly
Resists tempering and causes secondary hardening
Increases strength while retaining ductility
Forms strong and stable carbides
Increases toughness at high temperatures

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Alloying Elements

Hardness

Elements which helps increasing hardness

Chromium, Silicon, Manganese, Nickel, Tungsten,
Vanadium, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Phosphorous

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Alloying Elements

Hardness

Elements which helps increasing hardness

Chromium, Silicon, Manganese, Nickel, Tungsten,
Vanadium, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Phosphorous

Elements which helps decreasing hardness

Manganese and Nickel in austenitic Steels

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Alloying Elements

Strength

Elements which helps increasing strength

Chromium, Silicon, Manganese, Nickel, Tungsten,
Vanadium, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Phosphorous

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Alloying Elements

Yield Point

Elements which helps increasing Yield Point

Chromium, Silicon, Manganese, Nickel, Tungsten,
Vanadium, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Phosphorous

Elements which helps decreasing Yield Point

Manganese and Nickel in austenitic Steels

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Alloying Elements

Elongation

Elements which helps increasing Elongation

Manganese, Nickel

Elements which helps decreasing Elongation

Chromium, Silicon, Tungsten, Cobalt, Molybdenum,
Sulphur, Phosphorous

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Alloying Elements

Reduction of Cross Sectional Area

Elements which helps increasing Cross Sectional Area

Nickel in austenitic Steels

Elements which helps decreasing Cross Sectional Area

Chromium, Aluminium, Tungsten, Cobalt, Sulphur,
Molybdenum, Phosphorous

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Alloying Elements

Impact Strength

Elements which helps increasing Impact Strength

Vanadium, Molybdenum
Nickel in austenitic Steels

Elements which helps decreasing Impact Strength

Phosphorous, Silicon, Chromium, Aluminium, Cobalt,
Sulphur

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Alloying Elements

Elasticity

Elements which helps increasing Elasticity

Silicon, Manganese, Chromium, Vanadium

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High Temperature Stability

Elements which helps increasing High Temperature Stability

Tungsten, Nickel in austenitic steels, Vanadium, Cobalt,
Molybdenum, Chromium, Silicon, Nickel in all other
steels

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Alloying Elements

Resistance to Wear

Elements which helps increasing Resistance to Wear

Tungsten, Cobalt, Vanadium, Molybdenum, Manganese,
Chromium

Elements which helps decreasing Resistance to Wear

Manganese, Nickel in Austenitic Steels, Silicon

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Alloying Elements

Resistance to Corrosion

Elements which helps increasing Corrosion Resistance

Chromium, Nickel in Austenitic Steels, Vanadium

Elements which helps decreasing Corrosion Resistance

Sulphur

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Alloying Elements

Resistance to Machinability

Elements which helps increasing Resistance to Machinability

Manganese and Nickel in all steels, Tungsten, Silicon,
Molybdenum

Elements which helps decreasing Resistance to

Machinability
Sulphur, Phosphorus

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Alloying Elements

Un-common Alloying Elements

Bismuth
Boron
Cerium
Copper
Lead
Niobium
Sulphur
Tin
Zinc
Zirconium

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Alloying Elements

Bismuth

Effects
Improves machinability
Expands on solidification

Applications
Free cutting steels
Being non-toxic, used in dental applications

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Alloying Elements

Boron

Effects
Very High Neutron Capturing Capability
Ability to form very hard compounds

Applications
Cubic Boron Nitride – CBN Used as Grinding Abrasive
Used in Nuclear Reactors
Magnesium Diboride – MgB2 – High Temperature Super
Conductors
Strongest Permanent Magnets – Neodymium Magnets –
Nd2Fe14B

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Alloying Elements

Cerium

Effects
Helps in Precipitation Hardening
Higher Affinity for Sulphur and Oxygen

Applications
Used in Ferratic Stainless Steels for Precipitation
Hardening
Used to remove Sulphur and oxygen from molten steel

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Alloying Elements

Copper

Effects
Helps in Precipitation Hardening
Increases corrosion resistance
Applications
Used in small quantities to help in Precipitation
Hardening

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Lead

Effects
Makes steel more malleable and softer

Applications
As an alloy, improves the machinability of steels
Improves formability of steels

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Niobium

Effects
Helps in Precipitation Hardening
Grain Refining
Retardation of Recrystalisation
Increases Toughness, Strength, Formability and
Weldability

Applications
As micro alloy (0.10%<), used in structural Steels
In higher amounts, can form super alloy like Inconel718
Can be useful as a super conductor

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Alloying Elements

Sulphur

Effects
In small quantities, improves machinability.
In higher quantities, may cause Sulphur Embrittlement.
Applications
Useful to improve machinability.

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Tin

Effects
Increases Corrosion Resistance

Applications
Mostly used as a cladding or coating on steels to
increase the corrosion resistance
Zirconium Tin is used in Nuclear Fuel
Niobium Tin is used in Superconducting Magnets

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Alloying Elements

Zinc

Effects
Increases Corrosion Resistance by Sacrificial Anodic
Action

Applications
Mostly used as a coating on steels to increase the
corrosion resistance

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Alloying Elements

Zirconium

Effects
Increases Corrosion Resistance

Applications
Used in steels for manufacturing surgical equipment,
watch cases and filament in electric bulbs
Used in nuclear applications
Hard and Transparent Zirconium Dioxide is used as a
Diamond substitute
Zirconium carbide and nitride are used as cutting tools
for rock drilling

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Material Properties

Anisotropic Materials

Materials whose properties are different in different

directions because of an asymmetrical crystal
structure.

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 ALLOYING ELEMENTS

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