Lecture 9:

Cell Division
 Functions of Cell Division
100 µm 200 µm 20 µm

(a) Reproduction. An amoeba,
a single-celled eukaryote, is
dividing into two cells. Each
new cell will be an individual
organism (LM).
(b) Growth and development.
This micrograph shows a
sand dollar embryo shortly after
the fertilized egg divided, forming
two cells (LM).
(c) Tissue renewal. These dividing
bone marrow cells (arrow) will
give rise to new blood cells (LM).

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 When do cells divide?

• Most limiting factor in size is the size of

the cell membrane.
• Cells must obtain nutrients
• as volume increases, cell surface area does
not increase as greatly
• larger cells require a larger surface area for
survival
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 Getting ready to split

• Cell cycle has two parts:

• growth and preparation
(interphase)
• cell division
• mitosis (nuclear division)
• cytokinesis (cytoplasm division)

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 Phases of the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle consists of
• Interphase – normal cell activity
• The mitotic phase – cell division

INTERPHASE

Growth
G1 (DNA synthesis)

Growth
G2

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 Terminology
• Chromatin - thin fibrous form of DNA and proteins
• Sister chromatids- identical structures that result from chromosome
replication, formed during S phase

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• Homologous chromosomes:
• Look the same
• Control the same traits
• May code for different forms of each trait
• Independent origin - each one was inherited from a
different parent

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 Structure of Chromosomes
• Diploid - A cell possessing two copies of each chromosome
(human body cells).
• Homologous chromosomes are made up of sister
chromatids joined at the centromere.
• Haploid - A cell possessing a single copy of each chromosome
(human sex cells).

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 Phases of the Cell Cycle

• Interphase
• G1 - primary growth
• S - genome replicated
• G2 - secondary growth
• M - mitosis
• C - cytokinesis

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 Interphase

• G1 - Cells undergo majority of growth

• S - Each chromosome replicates (Synthesizes) to
produce sister chromatids
• Attached at centromere
• Contains attachment site (kinetochore)
• G2 - Chromosomes condense - Assemble
machinery for division such as centrioles

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 Mitosis
• part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are
separated into two new nuclei.

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 Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

G2 OF INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE

Centrosomes Aster Fragments
(with centriole pairs) Chromatin Early mitotic Kinetochore
spindle Centromere of nuclear
(duplicated) Nonkinetochore
envelope
microtubules

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore

envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule
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 Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Metaphase
plate Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming

Nuclear
envelope
Spindle Centrosome at Daughter forming
one spindle pole chromosomes
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G2 of Interphase

• A nuclear envelope bounds

the nucleus. G2 OF INTERPHASE
•Two centrosomes have Centrosomes
formed (with centriole pairs) Chromatin
•Chromosomes, duplicated (duplicated)
during S phase, cannot be
seen individually because
they have not yet condensed.

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma

envelope membrane

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Prophase

PROPHASE
• The chromatin fibers become more tightly
coiled Aster
Early mitotic
spindle Centromere
• The nucleoli disappear.

•The mitotic spindle begins to form.

•The centrosomes move away from

each other

Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids
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Metaphase

•longest stage of mitosis(20 minutes) METAPHASE

Metaphase
• The centrosomes are now at plate
opposite ends of the cell.

•The chromosomes’ centromeres lie

on the metaphase plate.

•Forms a “spindle”

Spindle Centrosome at
one spindle pole

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 The Mitotic Spindle
• Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of
chromosomes and move the chromosomes to the metaphase plate
• In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the
kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell
Aster
Sister Centrosome
Microtubules Chromosomes chromatids Metaphase
plate
Kineto-
chores

Overlapping
nonkinetochore Kinetochore
microtubules microtubules
Centrosome 1 µm 0.5 µm
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Anaphase

•shortest stage of mitosis(a few minutes) ANAPHASE

• begins when the two sister

chromatids of each pair suddenly part.
Each chromatid thus becomes a full-
fledged chromosome.

•The cell elongates =kinetochore

microtubules lengthen
.

Daughter
chromosomes

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Telophase
TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS
• Two daughter nuclei begin to
form in the cell. Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming
•The chromosomes become less
condensed.

•two genetically
identical nuclei is now
complete. Nuclear
envelope
forming

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 Mitosis in a plant cell
Nucleus Chromatine Chromosome
Nucleolus condensing

Metaphase. The
1 Prophase. 2 Prometaphase. 3 4 Anaphase. The 5 Telophase. Daughter
spindle is complete,
The chromatin We now see discrete chromatids of each nuclei are forming.
and the chromosomes,
is condensing. chromosomes; each chromosome have Meanwhile, cytokinesis
attached to microtubules
The nucleolus is consists of two separated, and the has started: The cell
at their kinetochores,
beginning to identical sister daughter chromosomes plate, which will
are all at the metaphase
disappear. chromatids. Later are moving to the ends divided the cytoplasm
plate.
Although not in prometaphase, the of cell as their in two, is growing
yet visible nuclear envelop will kinetochore toward the perimeter
in the micrograph, fragment. microtubles shorten. of the parent cell.
the mitotic spindle is
staring to from.

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 Cytokinesis

• Cleavage of cell into two

halves
– Animal cells

 Constriction belt of

actin filaments
– Plant cells

 Cell plate

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 Cytokinesis In Animal And Plant Cells

100 µm
Cleavage furrow Vesicles Wall of 1 µm
forming patent cell Cell plate
cell plate New cell wall

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments
Daughter cells
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)
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23
 What phase of the Cell cycle is
shown below? ( 2 pts)
The chromatids of each
chromosome have
separated.

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 What phase of the Cell cycle is
shown below? ( 2 pts)

The chromatin
is condensing.
The nucleolus is
beginning to
disappear.

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 What phase of the Cell cycle is
shown below? ( 2 pts)

The spindle is complete,

and the chromosomes,
attached to microtubules
at their kinetochores,
are all at the _____plate.

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 What phase of the Cell cycle is
shown below? ( 2 pts)

We now see discrete

chromosomes; each
consists of two
identical sister
chromatids.

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 What phase of the Cell cycle is
shown below? ( 2 pts)

Two new daughter cells

are formed

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 Sexual Reproduction

• Fertilization and meiosis Key

Haploid
alternate in sexual life cycles Diploid

• A life cycle is the n

Gametes
n

generation-to-generation n

sequence of stages in the MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

reproductive history of an
organism 2n
Zygote
2n

Diploid Mitosis
multicellular
organism
(a) Animals

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 Sex Cells - Gametes

• Unlike somatic cells, sperm and egg cells are haploid cells,
containing only one set of chromosomes
• At sexual maturity the ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes
by meiosis

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 Haploid gametes (n = 23)
Haploid (n)
Ovum (n)
Diploid (2n)

Sperm

• During fertilization, sperm

Cell (n)

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
and ovum fuse forming a
diploid zygote
Ovary Testis Diploid

• The zygote develops into zygote

(2n = 46)

an adult organism
Mitosis and
development

Multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

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 Meiosis

• a type of cell division that results in

four daughter cells each with half
the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell, as in the production
of gametes and plant spores.
• Ensures that the next generation will
have:
• Diploid number of chromosome
• Exchange of genetic information
(combination of traits
that differs from that of either parent)

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• Meiosis reduces the number
Interphase
Homologous pair
of chromosomes

of chromosome sets from

in diploid parent cell

diploid to haploid
• Meiosis takes place in two
Chromosomes
replicate

Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

sets of divisions
Sister

• Meiosis I reduces the chromatids Diploid cell with

replicated
chromosomes

number of chromosomes Meiosis I

from diploid to haploid

1 Homologous

• Meiosis II produces four chromosomes

separate

Haploid cells with

haploid daughter cells Meiosis II

replicated chromosomes

2 Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes

Figure 13.7 33
 Meiosis Phases

• Meiosis involves the same four phases seen in mitosis

• prophase
• metaphase
• anaphase
• telophase
• They are repeated during both meiosis I and meiosis II.
• The period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II is called
interkinesis.
• No replication of DNA occurs during interkinesis because the
DNA is already duplicated.

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 Prophase I

• occupies more than 90% of

the time required for meiosis
• Chromosomes begin to
condense
• form a tetrad consisting of 4 Prophase I Nonsister
chromatids of meiosis chromatids

• Sometimes crossing over

Tetrad
happens between chromatids
Chiasma,
site of
crossing
over
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 Metaphase I

• tetrads line up at the metaphase plate

• Microtubules from one pole are attached to

the kinetochore of one chromosome of
each tetrad

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PROPHASE I METAP
Anaphase I

• pairs of homologous
chromosomes separate
• One chromosome moves toward
each pole, guided by the spindle
apparatus

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 Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the cell has
a diploid set of chromosomes

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 Phase II

TELOPHASE I AND PROPHASE II TELOPHASE II AND

METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II
CYTOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage Haploid daughter cells

furrow Sister chromatids forming
separate

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 A Comparison of Mitosis and
Meiosis
• Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets,
producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent
cell
• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets
from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that
differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell
• The mechanism for separating sister chromatids is
virtually identical in meiosis II and mitosis

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• Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in
meiosis l:
• Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous
chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic
information
• At the metaphase plate, there are paired homologous
chromosomes (tetrads), instead of individual replicated
chromosomes
• In anaphase II of meiosis, the sister chromatids separate

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 MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Chiasma (site of
MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome replication) crossing over)

Prophase I
Prophase
Chromosome Chromosome
replication replication
Tetrad formed by
Duplicated chromosome 2n = 6 synapsis of homologous
(two sister chromatids) chromosomes

Chromosomes Tetrads
positioned at the positioned at the Metaphase I
Metaphase
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase Sister chromatids

separate during Homologues Anaphase I
Telophase
anaphase separate Telophase I
during
anaphase I;
sister Haploid
chromatids n=3
remain together Daughter
cells of
meiosis I

2n 2n
MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells
of mitosis

n n n n

Daughter cells of meiosis II

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Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II
Cite the difference between meiosis
and mitosis (2 pts)

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 Membrane transport
and Electrophysiology
Fluid mosaic model:
• Working model of the membrane
• Protein molecules bobbing in phospholipid sea
• Proteins determine membrane’s specific functions

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Phospholipids
• Most abundant lipid Hydrophilic
head
• Polar/hydrophilic
head(attracted to water)
• Pair of
nonpolar/hydrophobic
Hydrophobic
tails(repelled by water) tails

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 Polar heads, outside & inside
Nonpolar tails in the interior cell membranes
outside

Hydrophilic head

phospholipid
Hydrophobic tail

Hydrophilic head

inside

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Selectively permeable- allows
certain substances to pass through
By 2 ways:
• Passive- downhill
• Active- uphill (needs energy)

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Passive: downhill reaction
• Simple diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated diffusion
• Filtration
Active: uphill reaction, needs ATP
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
- Pinocytosis
- Phagocytosis
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No Barrier:
• Substances “spread out”
• High concentration to low concentration

e.g.: Red dye placed in glass of water

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 Biological membrane:

• High concentration to low

concentration
• “Down the concentration
gradient”
• Dynamic equilibrium, equal rates
in both directions

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 10 micrometers
(a) isotonic solution (b) hypertonic solution (c) hypotonic solution

equal movement of water net water movement net water movement

into and out of cells out of cells into cells

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Carrier proteins:
• Bind specific molecule
& change shape

• Pass molecule through

middle of protein

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Osmosis- diffusion of a water through a semi-
permeable membrane
• Moves down concentration gradient

e.g., Two sugar solutions of

different concentrations
separated by porous membrane
which lets water through but not
sugar
What will happen?

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• More concentrated to less concentrated
• Until concentration same on both sides: isotonic

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Concentration of solute Concentration of
less: solution is solute greater:
hypotonic. solution is
hypertonic.

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Animal cells
No cell walls

Isotonic environment:
Influx of water equals
the efflux of water
No change in cell
shape

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Hypertonic solution:
Water leaves cell
Shriveled, or crenate

Hypotonic solution:
Water enters cell
Bursts, or lyses
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Which solution is hypertonic, isotonic, hypotonic?

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Glomerular filtration

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Passive Transport and Facilitated Diffusion

• Passive transport &

facilitated diffusion
do NOT require

ATP

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 Active Transport

outside cell DOES require the input of

ATP
(Adenosine
triphosphate)

• Transport proteins
AGAINST
concentration
inside cell gradient
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64
ATP  ADP + Pi + Energy

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Outside the cell

Inside the cell

• Pinocytosis(cell drinking)
• Phagocytosis(cell eating)

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 mucus

Goblet cell

http://www.1lecture.com/Physiology/Endocytosis%20and%20Exocytosis/index.html
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 Membrane Permeability
• Cell membrane:
 selectively permeable

• 4 factors that determine permeability

1 lipid solubility

2 molecular size

3 polarity

4 charge

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 Lipid solubility
• Most important factor
• Hydrophobic molecules
Passively diffuse
Hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, & oxygen

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 Molecular Size and Polarity
Molecular Size
Larger molecules, less permeable
Lower kinetic energy
Small pore sizes in the membrane
Polarity
Polar molecules hydrophilic, less permeable
Very small, polar uncharged (water)
molecules can diffuse

-
+ 72
 Charge

• Charged molecules hydrophilic, less permeable

Surrounded by coat of water (hydration
shell), increases the size

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 INQUIRY

1. What is the main difference between active

transport and facilitated diffusion?

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1. In osmosis, water moves from a xxxx solution to a
xxxx solution.

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1. What happens to blood cells placed in pure water?

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1. Which portion of the phospholipid molecule faces
the environment outside of the cell?

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• The release of insulin from certain human cells is an
example of xxxx(endo, exo, phago, pinocytosis).

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