The mineral (inorganic) elements constitute only

a small proportion of the body weight.

There is a wide variation in their body content.
Eg: calcium constitutes about 2% of
body weight while cobalt about 0.00004%.

General functions :
Minerals performs a very vital functions which
are absolutely essential for the very existence of
the organism. These include calcification of
bone, blood coagulation, neuromuscular
irritability,acid-base equilibrium,fluid balance
and osmotic regulation
 Certain minerals are integral components of
biologically important compounds such as
hemoglobin (Fe), thyroxine (l), insulin (Zn) and
vitamin B12 (Co).
 Sulfur is present in thiamine, biotin, lipoic
acid and coenzyme A.
 Several minerals participate as cofactors for
enzymes in metabolism (e.g. Mg, Mn , Cu, Zn,
K).
 Some elements are essential constituents of
certain enzymes (e.g. Co, Mo, Se).
The minerals are classified as
 Principal elements
 Trace elements
Principal elements :
• The principal elements are required in
amounts greater than 100 mg/day
• The seven principal elements (macro minerals)
constitute 60-80% of the body’s
inorganic material. These are Ca, P, Mg, Na, K,
Cl , S
Trace elements : (micro minerals)
The micro minerals are required in amounts
less than 100 mg/day. They are subdivided into
three categories.
1. Essential trace elements : lron , copper,
iodine, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, cobalt,
fluorine, selenium and chromium.
2. Possibly essential trace elements: Nickel,
vanadium, cadmium and barium.
3. Non-essential trace elements : Aluminium.
lead, mercury, boron, silver, bismuth etc.
 CALCIUM
Calcium is the most abundant among the
minerals in the body.
The total content of calcium in an adult man is about 1
to 1.5 kg
As much as 99 % of it is present in the bones and
teeth. A small fraction (1%) of the calcium, found
outside the skeletal tissue, performs a wide
variety of functions
Biochemical functions
1. Development of bones and teeth :
Calcium, along with phosphate, is
required for formation and physical
strength of skeletal tissue. Osteoblasts
are responsible for bone formation
while osteoclasts result in
demineralization
2. Muscle contraction: Ca2+ interacts with
troponin C to trigger muscle contraction.
Calcium also activates ATPase, increases the
interaction between actin and myosin.
3. Blood coagulation : Several reactions in
the cascade of blood clotting process are
dependent on Ca2+(factor lV ).
4. Nerve transmission: Ca2+ is necessary for
the transmission of nerve impulse.
5. Membrane integrity and permeability :
Ca2+ influences the membrane structure and
transport of water and several ions across it.
6. Activation of enzymes : Ca2+ is needed
for the direct activation of enzymes such as
lipase (pancreatic), ATPase and succinate
dehydrogenase.
7. Calmodulin mediated action of Ca2+ :
Calmodulin (mol. wt. 17,000) is a calcium
binding regulatory protein. Ca-calmodulin
complex activates certain enzymes e.g.
adenylate cyclase, Ca2+ dependent protein
kinases.
8. Calcium as intracellular messenger :
Certain hormones exert their action through the
mediation of Ca2+( instead of cAMP).Calcium is
regarded as a second messenger for such
hormonal action e.g. epinephrine in liver
glycogenolysis. Calcium serves as a third
messenger for some hormones e.g. antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) acts through cAMP, and then
ca2+.
 Dietary requirements

 Adult men and women - 800 mg/day

 Women during
pregnancy/lactation - 1.5 g/day
and post-menopause
 Children (1-18 yrs) - o.8-1.2 g/day
 Infants (<1 year) - 300-500 mg/day
Sources :
Best sources - Milk and milk products
Good sources – Beans , leafy vegetables,
fish, cabbage, egg yolk.
Absorption :
The absorption of calcium mostly occurs in
the duodenum by an energy dependent
active process.
Factors promoting Ca absorption :
1 . Vitamin D (through its active form calcitriol) induces
the synthesis of calcium binding protein in the
intestinal epithelial cells and promotes Ca absorption.
2. Parathyroid hormone enhances Ca absorption
through the increased synthesis of calcitriol.
3. Acidity (low pH) is more favourable for Ca absorption.
4. Lactose promotes calcium uptake b y intestinal cells.
5. The amino acids lysine and arginine facilitate Ca
absorption
Factors inhibiting Ca absorption :
1.Phytates and oxalates form insoluble salts and interfere with
Ca absorption.
2.High content of dietary phosphate results in the formation
of insoluble calcium phosphate and prevents Ca uptake.
The dietary ratio of Ca and P - between 1 : 2 and 2 : 1 - is
ideal for optimum Ca absorption by intestinal cells.
3. The free fatty acids react with Ca to form insoluble calcium
soaps. This is particularly observed when the fat absorption
is impaired.
4. Alkaline condition (high pH) is unfavourable for Ca
absorption.
5. High content of dietary fiber interferes with Ca
absorption.
Plasma calcium :
The normal concentration of plasma or
serum Ca is 9-11 mg/dl.
Ionized Ca
10% (biologically
active)

Protein bound
non-diffusible
50%
Ca
40%
Ca complexed
with
citrate,phosphat
e,bicarbonate
 calcitriol, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and
calcitonin are the major factors that
regulate the plasma calcium within a narrow
range (9-11 mg/dl).
Calcitriol :The physiologically active form of
vitamin D is a hormone, namely calcitriol or
1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol(1,25 DHCC).
 calcitriol stimulates calcium uptake by
osteoblasts of bone and promotes
calcification or mineralization
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) :
PTH is originally synthesized as preproPTH
which is degraded to proPTH and, finally, to
active PTH.
The rate of formation (by degradation of
proPTH) and the secretion of PTH are
promoted by low Ca2+ concentration.
The prime function of PTH is to elevate
serum calcium level
PTH acts on bone , kidney and intestine.
Action on the bone :
PTH causes decalcification or demineralization of
bone, a process carried out by osteoclasts.
Demineralization leads to increase in the blood Ca
level.
Action on the kidney :
PTH increases the Ca reabsorption by
kidneytubules.
 This is the most rapid action of PTH to elevate
blood Ca levels.
Action on the intestine :
The action of PTH on the intestine is indirect. Lt
increases the intestinal absorption of Ca by
promoting
the synthesis of calcitriol.
Calcitonin :
Calcitonin is secreted by parafollicular cells of
thyroid gland.
The action of CT on calcium metabolism is
antagonistic to that of PTH.
calcitonin promotes calcification by increasing
the activity of osteoblasts.
Further, calcitonin decreases bone resorption and
increases the excretion of Ca into urine.
CT, therefore, has a decreasing influence on blood
calcium.
Excretion of calcium :
Calcium is excreted partly through the kidneys
and mostly through the intestine.
Disease states :
Abnormalities in Ca metabolism are mainly
associated with alterations in PTH.
Hypercalcemia
Hypocalcemia
Rickets
Renal rickets
Osteoporosis
Osteopetrosis(marble bone disease)
 Elevation in serum Ca level (normal 9-1 1
mg/dl) is hypercalcemia.
 Hypercalcemia is associated with
hyperparathyroidism caused by
increased activity of parathyroid glands.
 Decrease in serum phosphate and increase in
alkaline phosphatase activity are also found in
hyperparathyroidism
 Hypocalcemia is a more serious and life
threatening condition. lt is characterized by
a fall in the serum Ca to below 7 mg/dl,
causing tetany. The symptoms of tetany
include neuromuscular irritability, spasms and
Convulsion.
 Hypocalcemia is mostly due to
hypoparathyroidism.
 Rickets is a disorder of defective calcification of bones.
 This may be due to a low levels of vitamin D in the
body or due to a dietary deficiency of Ca and P-or
both.
 The concentration of serum Ca and P may be low
or normal.
 An increase in the activity of alkaline phosphatase is a
characteristic feature of rickets.
 Renal rickets

 Renal rickets is associated with damage to

renal tissue , causing impairment in the
synthesis of calcitriol.
 lt does not respond to vitamin D in
ordinary doses,so it regards as vitamin D
resistant rickets.
 Renal rickets can be treated by
administration of calcitriol
Osteoporosis :
 Osteoporosis is characterized by demineraIization
of
bone resulting in the progressive loss of bone mass.

Osteopetrosis:
 Osteopetrosis is characterized by increased
bone density.
 This disorder is mostly observed in association with
renal tubular acidosis and cerebral calcification.