c




 
 




   



i
 

 
j

j
‡ All transmission lines in a power system
exhibit the electrical properties of resistance,
inductance, capacitance and conductance.
‡ Inductance and capacitance are due to the
effects of magnetic and electric fields around
the conductor.
‡ These parameters are essential for the
development of the transmission line models
used in power system analysis.
‡ The shunt conductance accounts for leakage
currents flowing across insulators and ionized
pathways in the air.
‡ The leakage currents are negligible
compared to the current flowing in the
transmission lines and may be neglected.
j


‡ Important in transmission
efficiency evaluation and
economic studies.
‡ Significant effect
± Generation of j
loss in
transmission line.
± Produces j
-type voltage drop
which affect voltage regulation.
j


‡ The dc resistance of a solid round

conductor at a specified temperature
is
*

!

Where :
r ‰ conductor resistivity (ȍ-m),
| ‰ conductor length (m) ; and
A ‰ conductor cross-sectional area (m2)
j


‡ Conductor resistance is
affected by three factors:-
‡ Frequency (µskin effect¶)
‡ Spiraling
‡ Temperature
j


Frequency ± Skin Effect

‡ When ac flows in a conductor, the
current distribution is not uniform over
the conductor cross-sectional area and
the current density is greatest at the
surface of the conductor.
‡ This causes the ac resistance to be
somewhat higher than the dc
resistance. The behavior is known as
Ô
.
j


‡ The skin effect is where alternating

current tends to avoid travel through
the center of a solid conductor, limiting
itself to conduction near the surface.
‡ This effectively limits the cross-
sectional conductor area available to
carry alternating electron flow,
increasing the resistance of that
conductor above what it would
normally be for direct current
j

j


‡ Skin effect correction factor are

defined as

ë
Where
R ‰ AC resistance ; and
Ro ‰ DC resistance.
j


Spiraling
‡ For stranded conductors, alternate
layers of strands are spiraled in
opposite directions to hold the strands
together.
‡ Spiraling makes the strands 1 ± 2%
longer than the actual conductor
length.
‡ DC resistance of a stranded conductor
is 1 ± 2% larger than the calculated
value.
j

Temperature
‡ The conductor resistance increases
as temperature increases. This
change can be considered linear over
the range of temperature normally
encountered and may be calculated
from :
`R Œ
Π
`R
Where:
R1 ‰ conductor resistances at t1 in °C
R2 ‰ conductor resistances at t2 in °C
T ‰ temperature constant (depends on
the conductor material)
j


‡ The conductor resistance is best

determined from manufacturer¶s
data.
‡ Some conversion used in
calculating line resistance:-
1 cmil ‰ 5.067x10-4 mm2
‰ 5.067x10-6 cm2
‰ 5.067x10-10 m2

  

 

   

rŒ
 T
aterial Resistivity at 20ºC Temperature Constant

  
  ºC
Copper
Annealed 1.72 10.37 234.5
Hard-drawn 1.77 10.66 241.5
Aluminum
Hard-drawn 2.83 17.00 228
Brass 6.4 ± 8.4 38 ± 51 480
Iron 10 60 180
Silver 1.59 9.6 243
Sodium 4.3 26 207
Steel 12 ± 88 72 ± 530 180 ± 980
j


‡ Example:-
A solid cylindrical aluminum
conductor 25km long has an area
of 336,400 circular mils. Obtain the
conductor resistance at
(a) 20°C and
(b) 50°C.

The resistivity of aluminum at 20°C is

ȡ ‰ 2.8x10-8ȍ-m.
j


‡ Answer (a)

*


Π

ˌ 
 ˌ 


 

 

 Ë
 





 

j


‡ Answer (b)


Vu 
Œ
Vu 
V u

Œ
V u

ŒŒ


 Ë
 


ŒŒ
Œ

  
 
j


‡ Exercise 1
A transmission-line cable consists of
12 identical strands of aluminum,
each 3mm in diameter. The
resistivity of aluminum strand at
20°C is 2.8x10-8ȍ-m. Find the 50°C
ac resistance per km of the cable.
Assume a skin-effect correction
factor of 1.02 at 50Hz.
j


‡ Exercise 2:-
A solid cylindrical aluminum
conductor 115km long has an area
of 336,400 circular mils. Obtain the
conductor resistance at:
(a) 20°C
(b) 40°C
(c) 70°C

The resistivity of aluminum at 20°C is

ȡ ‰ 2.8x10-8ȍ-m.
j


‡ Exercise 3
A transmission-line cable consists of
15 identical strands of aluminum,
each 2.5mm in diameter. The
resistivity of aluminum strand at
20°C is 2.8x10-8ȍ-m. Find the 50°C
ac resistance per km of the cable.
Assume a skin-effect correction
factor of 1.015 at 50Hz.
j 

j   

‡ A current-carrying conductor produces
a magnetic field around the conductor.
‡ The magnetic flux can be determined
by using the right hand rule.
‡ For nonmagnetic material, the
inductance á is the ratio of its total
magnetic flux linkage to the current j,
given by
›
á
j
where ‰flux linkages, in Weber turns.
j 

j   

‡ For illustrative
example, consider
a long round
conductor with
radius V, carrying
a current j as
shown.
‡ The magnetic
field intensity ,
around a circle of
radius , is j
constant and  
tangent to the Œ` 
circle.
j 

j   

‡ The inductance of the conductor
can be defined as the sum of
contributions from flux linkages
internal and external to the
conductor.
V! "#

j 

j   

j 

j  $%  j 
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
-





 
‡ Lint , Lext @ L?
‡ L1 , L2 @ L?
‡ L11 , L12 @ L22?
‡ GR?
‡ GD?
j 

j   

‡ INTERNAL INDUCTANCE
± Internal inductance can be express as
follows:-

ƒ

á
   
 


` Œ
± Where
à ‰ permeability of air (4l
 
± The internal inductance is independent of
the conductor radius V
j 

j   

‡ INDUCTANCE DUE
TO EXTERNAL
FLUX LINKAGE
± External
inductance
between to point
D2 and D1 can be
express as
follows:

Œ


Y Π
  


j 

j  $%  j 
‡ A single phase lines consist of a
single current carrying line with a
return line which is in opposite
direction. This can be illustrated as:
j 

j  $%  j 
‡ Inductance of a single-phase
lines can be expressed as
below with an assumption
that the radius of r1‰r2‰r.

Œ
 
 R Y 

 R Π

  
Œ






 R Π

    Π


R     
ΠV  V 

 



Π

 Y R     

Π




R     
 V 

V 
 Y  



Π


Π  
VY
 V 
 
j 

‡ The series inductance per phase can
be express in terms of self-inductance
of each conductor and their mutual
inductance.
‡ Consider the one meter length single-
phase circuit in figure below:-

± Where L11 and L22 are self-inductance

and the mutual inductance L12
 V 
 
j 


á  Œ 
 
Œ

Π
   
VY

ጠ Œ 



Œ

Π
 
 
VΠY
  Ëá ጠj
Œ  Ë áŒ
ጌ j Œ
 
  á j 

Π
 
Œ

Π
   j  Ëá ጠj
 VY 
á  Œ 
 
Œ
VY

á Œ  Œ 



 
á Œ 
Π
    Π
 
  
 V 
 
j 

‡ L11, L22 and L12 can be expressed as
below:-


 Π


Œ
VY


ŒŒ Œ 


Œ
VŒY


ΠΠΠ



 V 
 
j 

‡ Flux linkage of conductor i

  
›m Œ 
j m 

ΠR  j 


 ' m

V Y

 m m 
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Symmetrical Spacing
± Consider 1 meter length of a three-phase
line with three conductors, each radius r,
symmetrically spaced in a triangular
configuration.
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Assume balance 3-phase current
Ia+ Ib+ Ic ‰ 0
‡ The total flux linkage of phase a
conductor
 
  Œ


j 
Œ
j 
j  


 VY  
‡ Substitute for Ib + Ic‰-Ia
  


  Œ

j 
Œ j    Œ
j 
Œ
 

 VY  VY
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Because of symmetry, Ȝa‰Ȝb‰Ȝc
‡ The inductance per phase per
kilometer length

 
á   Œ 

Π  


j VY
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Asymmetrical Spacing
± Practical transmission lines cannot maintain
symmetrical spacing of conductors because of
construction considerations.
± Consider one meter length of three-phase line with
three conductors, each with radius r. The
conductor are asymmetrically spaced with
distances as shown.
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
± The flux linkages are:-

 
  Π


j  


Œ

j  
j  
 VY Π

 
  Π


j  


Œ

j  
j  
 VY ΠΠ

 
  Π


j 


Œ

j  
j   
 VY  Π
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
± For balanced three-phase current
with j as reference, we have:-

j j   Œ
 Œ
 j
j j   Œ

j 
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Thus á
á and ác can be found
using the following equation:-

›
  
 Œ




ΠR  R 
Œ

j  VY
Œ


  
á   Œ




Œ
  
Œ

j   ΠVY Π

  Π
á   Œ


 
 

Π
j   ΠVY 
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Transpose Line
± Transposition is used to regain symmetry
in good measures and obtain a per-phase
analysis.
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ This consists of interchanging the phase
configuration every one-third the length so
that each conductor is moved to occupy the
next physical position in a regular sequence.
‡ Transposition arrangement are shown in the
figure
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Since in a transposed line each
phase takes all three positions,
the inductance per phase can be
obtained by finding the average
value.
 á
á
á
á

  


Œ
i Œ
V 
i Œ
V  
 VY Π 
 
Œ
  



Œ
i Œ
V 
i Œ
V  
   VY Π Π

  


 VY
Œ
i Œ
V  
i Œ
V   
   Π

Œ
  


Œ
   
  VY ΠΠ 
     
 Π

 ΠΠ


VY
Π
 
‡ Since in a transposed line each phase
takes all three positions, the
inductance per phase can be obtained
by finding the average value.

 R  R 


‡ Noting a + a2 ‰ -1
Œ

 
á

 
Œ
   
  VY ΠΠ
 
 Π


  


VY
Œ
Ë Œ Œ  
 


 Π


Ë Œ Œ   

Œ
VY
‡ Inductance per phase per kilometer
length
á 
Π
Ë Œ Œ   
  

Œ
VY
-





 
‡ Lint , Lext @ L?
‡ L1 , L2 @ L?
‡ L11 , L12 @ L22?
‡ GR?
‡ GD?
j 


 
j

 
  

    
  


 



  
   


 
  
  

 
 
    


  
   

j    

    


j
j 


 
  
 
 

    

 
  
 
 

    



   
   


 
   
    

j
 j

j 


 

 
 j
 
› Œ


 R  R  R    R  
  V 


 
j 

 

Œ


 R  R  R    R  
 
 

 
 
V





  

› Œ 
j 
 V 

 

›


 

  

 Π

j   V 

 

›


 

  

 Π

j   V 

 


 

 Œ
  
 
YVY


 
  
 
 
  
 
  Œ

 
 

 
 
YVY


 
 V 
(
 

‘ 

 


  
   
   

   
    



 
    
   
   

  
 
(
 

  Œ

 
 

 
 

V Y 

 ! V  !
Y







 !  Œ


 !

V Y VYY

 ! V  !
Y

 


 !  !  


 ! Œ
V Y  V

 ! V  !
Y


 


 !  !  !  ΠΠ
 
 

 ! 
j 

)

')

*
  

°   
 




  
 
 
  

 

 

    
   




      

 

    
 

 

 

 

   ŒŒŒ
j 

)

')

*
  


p
v
     

     Œ  Œ  Œ Œ

u     Œ  Œ  Œ Œ

 u     Œ  Œ  Œ Œ
 j 

)

')

*
  


  

 v
  
 
    °

u  °u
a

v i    


 °   

 Π 
Π

 Œ

 
   
  Œ  Œ
  
  Œ

 u    
 Œ  Œ
 
  Œ

  


   
 
 
   
 j 

)

')

*
  


  

 v i  
 

  




 
    



á  Œ 

  

á
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Question 4

A three-phase, 50 Hz transmission line has a

reactance 0.5 Ÿ per kilometer. The conductor
geometric mean radius is 2 cm. Determine the
phase spacing D in meter.
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Question 4

A three-phase, 60 Hz transmission line has a

reactance 0.25Ÿ per kilometer. The conductor
geometric mean radius is 5 cm. Determine the
phase spacing D in meter.
j 

&'$% 
 jj  j 
‡ Question 4

A three-phase, 50 Hz transmission line has

Xc ‰ 0.5 Ÿ per kilometer. The conductor geometric
mean radius is 2 cm. Determine the phase spacing
D in meter.
 $ j


‡ Transmission line conductors

exhibit capacitance with respect
to each other due to the potential
difference between them.
‡ The amount of capacitance
between conductors is a function
of conductor size, spacing, and
height above ground.
‡ Capacitance C is:-
m
u


 j  $ j

‡ Consider a long
round conductor
with radius V,
carrying a
charge of
coulombs per
meter length as
shown.
‡ The electrical
flux density at a m m
cylinder of radius

x is given by:  Œ` 
 j  $ j

‡ The electric field intensity E is:-

 m
 
j
Œ`j

Where permittivity of free space, Ö0 ‰ 8.85x10-12 F/m.

‡ The potential difference between cylinders

from position 1 to 2 is defined as:-

m
Œ

Π
Œ`j


The notation
12 implies the voltage drop from 1
relative to 2.
 $ j
Vj  '
$%  j 
‡ Consider one meter length of a single-
phase line consisting of two long solid
round conductors each having a
radius r as shown.

‡ For a single phase, voltage between

conductor 1 and 2 is:-
m


Π  
`j
V
 $ j
Vj  '
$%  j 
‡ The capacitance between the
conductors:-

`j

Π



V
 $ j
Vj  '
$%  j 
‡ The equation gives the line-to-
line capacitance between the
conductors
‡ For the purpose of transmission
line modeling, we find it
convenient to define a
capacitance u between each
conductor and a neutral line as
illustrated.
 $ j
Vj  '
$%  j 
‡ Voltage to neutral is half of

12 and the capacitance to
neutral is u‰2u12 or:-

Œ`j

u  


V
$
 



  # 
‡ Consider n parallel long conductors
with charges 1, 2,«, n
coulombs/meter as shown below.
‡ Potential difference between conductor
m and due to the presence of all
charges is
 

m  ;m  
Œ`j
  m
 $ j
V
%'
$%  j 
‡ Consider one meter length of 3-phase
line with three long conductors, each
with radius V, with conductor spacing
as shown below:
 $ j
V
%'
$%  j 

For balanced 3-phase system, the

capacitance per phase to neutral is:

m Œ`j
u  
Ë


 ŒŒ

V
 $ j
V
%'
$%  j 
The capacitance to neutral in F per
kilometer is:



u ƒ !
Ë

ŒŒ

V

 *#
Œ`j

  



V
‡ The effect of bundling is introduce an
equivalent radius Vb. The radius Vb is
similar to
 calculate earlier for the
inductance with the exception that
radius V of each subconductor is used
instead of s.
 
 *#
‡ If ! is the bundle spacing, we obtain for
the two-subconductor bundle

V  V!
‡ For the three-subconductor bundle

V  
V!Œ

‡ For the four-subconductor bundle

V 
  V  ! 
 

)

')

*
  

‡ The per-phase equivalent capacitance
to neutral is obtained to
Œ`j

  




‡ GD is the same as was found for
inductance calculation

 
 
 Œ
 Œ
 Œ Œ




 Œ
 Œ
 Œ Œ

 

 Œ
 Œ
 Œ Œ
 

)

')

*
  

=
  

 v
  
 






‡ The GRC of each phase is similar to

the GRL, with the exception that Vb is
used instead of


‡ This will results in the following equ«
V°  V Œ 
u   V° V
Vu
V
 V  Œ

Vu  V Œ
VV
V 
% 
%
 $ j

‡ For isolated charged conductor the
electric flux lines are radial and
orthogonal to cylindrical equipotential
surfaces, which will change the
effective capacitance of the line.
‡ The earth level is an equipotential
surface. Therefore flux lines are forced
to cut the surface of the earth
orthogonally.
‡ The effect of the earth is to increase
the capacitance.
VV
V 
% 
%
 $ j

‡ But, normally, the height of the
conductor is large compared to the
distance between the conductors, and
the earth effect is negligible.
‡ Therefore, for all line models used for
balanced steady-state analysis, the
effect of earth on the capacitance can
be negligible.
‡ However, for unbalance analysis such
as unbalance faults, the earth¶s effect
and shield wires should be considered.
  
jVj 
j 
j
‡ Transmission line magnetic fields
affect objects in the proximity of
the line.
‡ Produced by the currents in the
line.
‡ It induces voltage in objects that
have a considerable length
parallel to the line (Ex: telephone
wires, pipelines etc.).
  
jVj 
j 
j
‡ The magnetic field is effected by
the presence of earth return
currents.
‡ There are general concerns
regarding the biological effects of
electromagnetic and electrostatic
fields on people.
 


j
j 
j
‡ Transmission line electric fields affect
objects in the proximity of the line.
‡ It produced by high voltage in the
lines.
‡ Electric field induces current in
objects which are in the area of the
electric fields.
‡ The effect of electric fields becomes
more concern at higher voltages.
 


j
j 
j
‡ Primary cause of induction to vehicles,
buildings, and object of comparable
size.
‡ Human body is effected to electric
discharges from charged objects in the
field of the line.
‡ The current densities in human cause
by electric fields of transmission lines
are much higher than those induced by
magnetic fields!


‡ When surface potential gradient

exceeds the dielectric strength of
surrounding air, ionization occurs
in the area close to conductor
surface.
‡ This partial ionization is known as
corona.
‡ Corona generate by atmospheric
conditions (i.e. air density,
humidity, wind)


‡ Corona produces power loss and

audible noise (Ex: radio
interference).
‡ Corona can be reduced by:
± Increase the conductor size.
± Use of conductor bundling.


+
‡ Transmission Line Parameters:
± Resistance
‡ Skin effect
± Inductance
‡ Single phase line
‡ 3 phase line equal & unequal spacing
± Capacitance
‡ Single phase line
‡ 3 phase line equal & unequal spacing
± Conductance
‡ Neglected
‡ Corona


+

‡ Effect of Earth on the

Capacitance
‡ agnetic Field Induction
‡ Electrostatic Induction
‡ Corona