CHAPTER

4OUR
R EASONIN G:
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCE
 REASONING
a mental operation through which the
agreement or disagreement of two
ideas is inferred from their known
relation to a common third idea.
Methods O
Reasoning F
 INDUCTION/Inductive Reasoning
 One which proceeds from individual or
particular data to general or universal
conclusion.

Example:

Juan is a man.
Juan is mortal.
∴ All men are mortal.
 DEDUCTION/Deductive Reasoning
 One which proceeds from universal data to
particular and individual conclusion.

Example:

All animals are mortal.

All humans are animals.
∴ All humans are mortal.
 INFERENCE
any process through which the mind
proceeds from one or more
propositions to other propositions
whose meanings are already implied
in the former.
 INFERENCE
Example:

 All men are mortal.

Julius is a man.
∴ Julius is mortal.

 John is a man.
∴ John is mortal.
Kinds O F
Inference
 IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
 Eduction
 Conversion
 Obversion
 Contraposition
 Inversion

 Logical Opposition
 Contradictory
 Contrary
 Subcontrary
 Subaltern Oppositions
 Rules governing their oppositions

 MEDIATE INFERENCE
 IMMEDIATE
INFERENCE
a process of reasoning through which
the mind passes directly from one
proposition to a new proposition
which is nothing else but a
reformulation (partial or complete) of
the very exact meaning or truth as
expressed in the original proposition.
 IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
 Contains only two terms, namely, subject
term and predicate term.

Example:

 No metalsare stones.
(S) (P)

∴ No stonesare metals.
(S) (P)
 EDUCTION
a new proposition is being
formulated either by interchanging
the subject and predicate terms of
the original proposition or by the use
or removal of negatives.
Kinds O F
EDUCTION
Conversion
Obversion
Contraposition
Inversion
CONVERSION
 CONVERSION
 formulation of a new proposition by way of
interchanging the subject and the predicate terms of
an original proposition.
 the quality of the original proposition is retained
 Two parts:
• Convertend- original proposition
• Converse- new proposition
Example:
No fish is a mouse. (Convertend)
(S) (P)
∴ No mouseis a fish (Converse)
(S) (P)
2Kinds O F
Conversion
 Simple Conversion
 the quantity of the convertend is retained in the
converse.
 if the convertend is universal, the converse must also
be universal, or if the convertend is particular, the
converse must also be particular.
 Only E and I propositions can be simply converted.

Example:
• No men are mortals. (E)
∴ No mortals are men. (E)
• Some mortals are men. (I)
∴ Some men are mortals. (I)
 Simple Conversion
 A and O propositions cannot be converted by simple
conversion.
We cannot convert:
• All dogs are animals. (A) to
(Su) (Pp)
∴ All animals are dogs. (A)
(Su) (Pp)

• Some birds are not animals. (O) to

(Sp) (Pu)
∴ Some animals are not birds. (O)
(Sp) (Pu)
 Partial Conversion
 the quantity of the convertend is reduced from
universal to particular. (but retain the quality)
 applicable only to “A” and “E” propositions.
 A to I; E to O
Examples:
• All computers are gadgets. (A) to
(Su) (Pp)
∴ Some gadgets are computers. (I)
(Sp) (Pp)
• No computers are robots. (E) to
(Su) (Pu)
∴ Some robots are not computers. (O)
(Sp) (Pu)
 Rules of Conversion
(a) Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
(b) Retain the quality of the convertend in the converse.

(c) Simple Conversion: (d) Partial Conversion.

Do not extend any term Reduce the quantity
(subject or predicate) of the (but just the same, retain the
convertend in the converse. The quality) of the convertend in the
quantity of the terms in the converse.
convertend should be
maintained in the converse.
A to I
E to O
E to E
I to I
OBVERSION
 OBVERSION
 retaining the subject term and the quantity of the
original proposition (obvertend)
 changing the quality of the original proposition (from
affirmative to negative or from negative to affirmative in
the obverse);
 replacing the predicate of the original proposition to its
contradictory in the obverse.
 applicable to all kinds of categorical propositions.
(A,E,I,O)
 OBVERSION
OBVERTEND OBVERSE
(1) All men are mortal. (A) (1) No men are non-mortal. (E)
(Su) (Pp) (Su) (Pu)

(2) No men are mortal. (E) (2) All men are non-mortal. (A)
(Su) (Pu) (Su) (Pp)
(3) Some men are mortal. (I) (3) Some men are not non-mortal. (O)
(Sp) (Pp) (Sp) (Pu)

(4) Some men are not mortal. (O) (4) Some men are non-mortal. (I)
(Sp) (Pu) (Sp) (Pp)
CONTRAPOSITION
 CONTRAPOSITION
 results from a formulation of a new proposition whose
subject term is the contradictory of the predicate term
in the original proposition.
 product of both conversion and obversion.

 Two types of contraposition

 Partial/Simple contraposition
 Complete contraposition
 Partial Contraposition
 consists the formulation of a new proposition
(contraposit) through the following:
(a) Its (contraposit) subject is the contradictory
of the predicate term of the original proposition
(contraponend)
(b) the quality of the contraponend is changed
in the contraposit; and
(c) the predicate term in the contraposit is the
subject term in the contraponend
 A to E
 E to I
 O to I
 Partial Contraposition
Examples:
(1) (Contraponend) All whales are mammals. (A) to
(Contraposit) ∴ No non-mammals are whales. (E)

(2) (Contraponend) No fishes are dogs. (E) to

(Contraposit) ∴ Some non-dogs are fishes. (I)

(3) (Contraponend) Some students are not studious. (O) to

(Contraposit) ∴ Some non-studious are students. (I)
 Complete Contraposition
 a new proposition (contraposit) is formulated through
the following:
(a) the subject term in the contraposit is the
contradictory of the predicate term in the
contraponend;
(b) the quality of the contraponend is not
changed in the contraposit; and
(c) the predicate term in the contraposit is the
contradictory of the subject term in the
contraponend.
 A to A
 E to O
 O to O
 Complete Contraposition
Examples:
(1) (Contraponend) All whales are mammals. (A) to
(Contraposit) ∴ All non-mammals are non-whales. (A)

(2) (Contraponend) No fish is a dog. (E) to

(Contraposit) ∴ Some non-dogs are not non-fishes. (O)

(3) (Contraponend) Some students are not studious. (O) to

(Contraposit) ∴ Some non-studious are not non-students. (O)
INVERSION
 INVERSION
 method of eduction in which the mind, through
obversion and conversion, finally arrives at a
judgment(inverse) whose subject and predicate terms
are contradictories of the subject and predicate terms in
the original proposition (invertend)
 Only A proposition is qualified for inversion.
 Inversion

Example of A proposition as Invertend:

(Invertend) All terrorists are criminals. (A) to

(Obverse) No terrorists are non-criminals. (E) to
(Converse: Simple) No non-criminals are terrorists. (E) to
(Obverse) All non-criminals are non-terrorists. (A) to
(Converse: Partial) Some non-terrorists are non-criminals. (I) to
(Inverse) Some non-terrorists are non-criminals. (I)
 Inversion
Example of E proposition as Invertend:

(Invertend) No corrupt government officials are holy. (E) (Obverse)

All corrupt government officials are non-holy. (A)
(Converse: Simple) Some non-holy are corrupt government officials. (I)
(Obverse) Some non-holy are not non-corrupt government
officials. (O)
(Converse: Partial) None
(Inverse) None
 Inversion
Example of I proposition as Invertend:

(Invertend) Some government officials are corrupt. (I)

(Obverse) Some government officials are not non-corrupt. (O)
(Converse: Simple) None
(Obverse) None
(Converse: Partial) None
(Inverse) None
 Inversion
Example of O proposition as Invertend:

(Invertend) Some government officials are not corrupt. (O)

(Obverse) Some government officials are non-corrupt. (O)
(Converse: Simple) Some non-corrupt individuals are government
officials. (I)
(Obverse) Some non-corrupt individuals are not non-
government officials. (O)
(Converse: Partial) None
(Inverse) None
 LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
Opposition exists between two
propositions when these
propositions have the same subject
and predicate terms but differ from
each other either in quantity or
quality or in both quantity and
quality.
 Logical Opposition
All Filipinos are Asians.
∴ No Germans are Romans.

All Filipinos are Asians.

∴ No Filipinos are Asians.
Types O F
Opposition
Contradictory
Contrariety
Subcontrariety
Subalternation
 Square of Opposition
A CONTRARIES E
All x are y. No x are y.

S S
U U
B B
A A
L L
T T
E E
R R
N N
S S

Some x are y. Some x are not y.

I SUBCONTRARIES O
CONTRADICTORY
 CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION
 an opposition existing between a pair of propositions
having the same subject and predicate terms but these
propositions differ in both quantity and quality.
 Rules of Contradictories
(a) If one of the two contradictories is true, the other is false,
and vice versa.
(b) Contradictories cannot be simultaneously true or false at
the same time.
 Conclusions
(a) If A is true, O is false.
(b) If E is true, I is false.
(c) If I is true, E is false.
(d) If O is true, A is false.
 Square of Opposition
A CONTRARIES E
All x are y. No x are y.

S S
U U
B B
A A
L L
T T
E E
R R
N N
S S

Some x are y. Some x are not y.

I SUBCONTRARIES O
CONTRARY
 CONTRARY OPPOSITION
 an opposition existing between a pair of universal
propositions having the same subject and predicate terms
but differing in quality since A is affirmative while E is
negative.
 Rules of Contrariety
(a) If one of the contraries is true, the other is false.
(b) If one of the contraries is false, the other is doubtful.

 Conclusions
(a) If A is true, E is false.
(b) If E is true, A is false.
(c) If A is false, E is doubtful.
(d) If E is false, A is doubtful.
SUBCONTRARY
 Square of Opposition
A CONTRARIES E
All x are y. No x are y.

S S
U U
B B
A A
L L
T T
E E
R R
N N
S S

Some x are y. Some x are not y.

I SUBCONTRARIES O
 SUBCONTRARY OPPOSITION
 an opposition existing between a pair of particular
propositions having the same subject and predicate terms
but differing in quality.
 I and O propositions are subcontraries.
 Rules of Subcontraries
(a) If one of the subcontraries is true, the other is doubtful.
(b) If one of the subcontraries is false, the other is true.

 Conclusions
(a) If I is true, O is doubtful.
(b) If O is true, I is doubtful.
(c) If I is false, O is true.
(d) If O is false, I is true.
SUBALTERN
 Square of Opposition
A CONTRARIES E
All x are y. No x are y.

S S
U U
B B
A A
L L
T T
E E
R R
N N
S S

Some x are y. Some x are not y.

I SUBCONTRARIES O
 SUBALTERN OPPOSITION
 an opposition existing between a pair of propositions
having the same subject and predicate terms and having
the same quality, but differing in quantity.
 SUBALTERN OPPOSITION
 Rules of Subalternation
(a) If the universal is true, the particular is true. This means that the truth
of the universal involves the truth of the particular. So if A is true, I is
true, or if E is true, O is also true.
(b) If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful. This means that
the falsity of the universal does not involve the falsity of the
particular. Thus, if A is false, I is doubtful, or if E is false, O is doubtful.
(c) If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful. This means that the
truth of the particular does not involve the truth of the universal.
Thus, if I is true, A is doubtful, or if O is true, E is doubtful.
(d) If the particular is false, the universal is false. This means that the
falsity of the particular involves the falsity of the universal. Thus, if I is
false, A is also false, or if O is false, E is also false.
 SUBALTERN OPPOSITION
 Conclusions:
(a) If A is true, I is true.
(b) If A is false, I is doubtful.
(c) If E is true, O is true.
(d) If E is false, O is doubtful.
(e) If I is true, A is doubtful.
(f) If I is false, A is false.
(g) If O is true, E is doubtful.
(h) If O is false, E is false.