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NUCLEIC ACIDS

By:
Dr. Tess Consulta

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DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic
acid)
• blueprint of life (has the instructions
for making an organism)
• established by James Watson and
Francis Crick
• codes for your genes
• shape of a double helix
• made of repeating subunits called
nucleotides
• What piece of
information did
Franklin and Wilkins
have that helped
Watson and Crick
determine the double
helix structure of
DNA?
• Had x-ray diffraction
photographs that
were crucial to
determine the
structure of DNA.
• What was the significance of Wilkins and
Franklin’s X-ray diffraction photographs regarding
DNA structure?
• Their photographs suggested that the DNA
moleculeresembled a tightly coiled helix and was
composed of two or three chains of nucleotides.
DNA structure and Functions
Structure
• Nucleotides pair in a
specific way - called
the Base-Pair Rule
• Adenine pairs to
Thymine
• Guainine pairs to
Cytosine
• The rungs of the
ladder can occur in
any order (as long as
the base-pair rule is
followed)
• Name the three parts of a nucleotide.
• A sugar, a phosphate and a
nitrogenous base
• Name the bonds that link the
nucleotide along a DNA strand.
• Hydrogen Bonds
• Distinguish between purines and
pyramidines
• Purines are nitrogenous bases made of
two rings of carbon and nitrogen atoms
(adenine and guanine). Pyramidines are
nitrogenous bases with one ring of carbon
and nitrogen atoms (cytosine and
Thymine).
• Describe why the two strands of a double helix
are considered to be complimentary.
• Because only A and T pair and G and C pair, if a
DNA chain has the sequence of ATTC, then the
other chain must have the complimentary TAAG.
• State the base pairing rules in DNA
• Guanine and cytosine pair, thymine and adenine
pair
• How do the base-pairing
rules relate to the structure
of DNA?
• Hydrogen bonds between
complimentary base-pairs
help hold the strands
together. A double ringed
purine on one strand bonds
with a single ringed
pyramidine on the opposite
strand so the chains are
always the same distance
apart.
How the code works

• a stretch of DNA could be AATGACCAT -


which would code for a different gene than
a stretch that read: GGGCCATAG.

• Those 4 bases have endless combinations


just like the letters of the alphabet can
combine to make different words.
DNA REPLICATION
• Replication is the process where DNA
makes a copy of itself.

• The site of replication process is


inside the nucleus.
Why does DNA need to copy?
– every new cell needs a copy of the DNA
or instructions to know how to be a cell.
– To ensure that both daughter cells will
have the same number of chromosomes.
• DNA replication is semi-
conservative.
• it makes a copy, one half of
the old strand is always kept
in the new strand.
• This helps reduce the number
of copy errors.
RNA
(Ribonucleic Acid)
There are three
types of RNA
1. mRNA
(messenger
RNA)
2. rRNA
(ribosomal
RNA)
3. tRNA (Transfer
RNA)
RNA is similar to DNA except:

1.has one strand instead of two


strands.
2.has uracil instead of thymine
3.has ribose instead of
deoxyribose
1. What are the three parts of a DNA nucleotide, and
how are they connected to each other?
sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous bases. The sugar and phosphate
serves as backbones that supports and keeps the nitrogenous
bases in place.
2. If 15% of the nucleotides in a DNA molecule
contain guanine, what percentage of the nucleotides
contain each of the other three bases? Explain your
reasoning.
Cytosine is 15%, adenine and thymine got 35% each, both
equals 70%.
3. Why is complementary base pairing important in
DNA structure?
Their shape matches the each other like a puzzle which makes
the structure stable.
4. How does replication occur so quickly in
eukaryotes?
The shape of the DNA makes replication faster and
efficient.

5. Why is it important that exact copies of DNA are


produced during replication?
To minimize mistakes or mutation

6. How is DNA replication related to cancer?


Any mistakes may lead to mutation which may lead
to cancer production
11. What is DNA replication?
Making an exact copy of the original DNA.
12. Where does DNA replication take place in a
eukaryotic cell? Nucleus
13. When is DNA replicated during the cell cycle?
Interphase (Sphase)
14. Why does DNA replication need to occur?
To make sure that both daughter cells will have equal
number of DNA
15. What is a template?
A molecular mold that shapes the structure or
sequence of another molecule.
16. If one strand of DNA had the sequence TAGGTAC,
what would be the sequence of the complementary
DNA strand? ATCCATG

17. What roles do proteins play in DNA replication?


To separate the DNA structure (Helicase)

18. What must be broken for the DNA strand to


separate?
Hydrogen Bond

19. Why is DNA replication called semiconservative?


Because only half of the DNA is copied and the other
one remained unreplicated
Type of RNA Function
mRNA Type of RNA that gets the protein code
out of the nucleus

tRNA The RNA that transfers the right amino acid

rRNA The RNA that read the mRNA code


Similarities and Differences between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
Ribonucleic acid
Ribose present
Deoxyribose present
Phosphoric acid present
Adenine present
Thymine present
Uracil present
Guanine present
Cytosine present
Formed from nucleotides
Double stranded
Single stranded
Remains in nucleus
Moves out of nucleus
Contains a chemical message or code
SEQUENCING
Trace the correct sequence of the steps of
Transcription. Number them from 1-10. (refer to page
206)

__4__RNA polymerase reaches a termination signal


in the DNA
__1__RNA polymerase binds to the gene promoter
__5__The DNA and new RNA are released by the
polymerase.
__2__Two DNA strands unwinds and separates
__3__Complimentary nucleotides are added and then
joined
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

• Transcription - RNA is made from DNA


• Translation - Proteins are made from the
message on the RNA
CENTRAL DOGMA
• mRNA has the job of taking the message
from the DNA to the nucleus to the
ribosomes.
THE GENETIC CODE
SYNTHESIS
MUTATIONS
Changes in DNA that affect genetic
information
Gene Mutations

 Point Mutations – changes in


one or a few nucleotides
 Substitution
 THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
 THE FAT HAT ATE THE RAT
 Insertion
 THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
 THE FAT CAT XLW ATE THE RAT
 Deletion
 THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
 THE FAT ATE THE RAT
Gene Mutations
 Frameshift Mutations – shifts
the reading frame of the
genetic message so that the
protein may not be able to
perform its function.
 Insertion
 THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
 THE FAT HCA TAT ETH ERA T

H
 Deletion
 THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
 TEF ATC ATA TET GER AT

H
Chromosome Mutations
 Changes in number and structure of entire
chromosomes
 Original Chromosome ABC * DEF
 Deletion AC * DEF
 Duplication ABBC * DEF
 Inversion AED * CBF
 Translocation ABC * JKL
GHI * DEF
Significance of Mutations
• Most are neutral
• Eye color
• Birth marks
• Some are harmful
• Sickle Cell Anemia
• Down Syndrome
• Some are beneficial
• Sickle Cell Anemia to Malaria
• Immunity to HIV
What Causes Mutations?
 There are two ways in which DNA can
become mutated:
 Mutations can be inherited.
 Parent to child
 Mutations can be acquired.
 Environmental damage
 Mistakes when DNA is copied
Chromosome Mutations
 Down Syndrome
 Chromosome 21 does
not separate correctly.
 They have 47
chromosomes in stead
of 46.
 Children with Down
Syndrome develop
slower, may have heart
and stomach illnesses
and vary greatly in their
degree of inteligence.
Chromosome Mutations

 Cri-du-chat
 Deletion of material on 5th
chromosome
 Characterized by the cat-like
cry made by cri-du-chat
babies
 Varied levels of metal
handicaps
Sex Chromosome
Abnormalities
 Klinefelter’s
Syndrome
 XXY, XXYY, XXXY
 Male
 Sterility
 Small testicles
 Breast enlargement
Sex Chromosome
Abnormalities
 XYY Syndrome
 Normal male traits
 Often tall and thin
 Associated with antisocial and behavioral
problems
Sex Chromosome
Mutations
 Turner’s Syndrome
 X
 Female
 sex organs don't
mature at
adolescence
 sterility
 short stature
Sex Chromosome
Mutations
 XXX
 Trisomy X
 Female
 Little or no visible differences
 tall stature
 learning disabilities
 limited fertility

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