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Dr Khizar Hayat
Assistant Professor, Department of Physics
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In a perfect crystal, all the atoms are at rest on their correct
lattice positions at absolute zero and such a perfect lattice
can be obtained hypothetically.
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Crystalline defects or imperfections
0-dimensional 1-dimensional 2-dimensional 3-dimensional
defects defects defects defects
The defects that They are lines The surfaces along The defects that
affect isolated sites along which the which distinct change the
in the crystal crystal pattern is crystallites are crystal pattern
structure are called broken are called joined together are over a finite
0-dimensional 1-dimensional called 2-dimensional volume are called
defects defects defects 3-dimensional
defects
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1. Point Defects (0-dimensional defects)
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Point Defects (0-dimensional defects)
Vacancy: A Vacancy refers to an atomic site from
where the atom is missing.
OR
An atom or an ion missing from its regular
crystallographic site
Vacancy
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Point Defects (0-dimensional defects)
Vacancy:
Vacancy
distortion
of planes
Vacancy Concentration: Nv Q
exp v
N kBT
Anion
Cation
Cation
vacancy
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Point Defects (0-dimensional defects)
Interstitial defect:
A point defect produced when an atom is placed into the crystal at
a site that is normally not a lattice point.
Self Interstitials defects
Substitutional interstitials defects
self-
distortion interstitial
of planes
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Point Defects (0-dimensional defects)
Frenkel imperfection:
An ion displaced from a regular site to an interstitial site is
called Frenkel imperfection.
OR
A combine vacancy-interstitial defect is called Frenkel
defect.
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Point Defects (0-dimensional defects)
Interstitial defect:
Substitutional Interstitials:
When foreign atoms occupy the interstitial sites in between
atomic sites of the parent material
Substitutional
Interstitials
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Point Defects (0-dimensional defects)
Substitutional defect:
A point defect produced when an atom is removed from a regular
lattice point and replaced with a different atom, usually of a different size.
OR
A Substitutional impurity refers to a foreign atom that has replaced
a parent atom.
Substitutional Interstitials
‘new element replaces host atoms’ ‘new element goes in holes’
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Can we roughly estimate what atoms will form solid solutions?
Yes
When alcohol (C2H2OH) is mixed with water (H2O), the
mixing occurs at molecular scale and the resultant mixture is
called liquid solution.
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Hume Ruthery Rule
If one or more of the above rules are violated, only partial solubility is
possible
For example, the Al and Si violate Hume Ruthery rules 1, 2 and 4 and as
a result less than 2 atomic percent Si is soluble in Al
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2. Dislocations or Line Defects (1-dimensional defects)
They are lines along which the crystal pattern is broken
are called Line Defects or 1-dimensional defects
DISLOCATIONS
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation EDGE MIXED SCREW
Mixed dislocation
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Edge dislocation in CdTe
Dislocations or Line Defects (1-dimensional defects)
Edge dislocation:
As, in the perfect crystal, an m×n atomic step loop
closes at the starting point.
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Dislocations or Line Defects (1-dimensional defects)
Mixed dislocation:
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3. Surface or planer Defects (2-dimensional defects)
Free surfaces
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Surface or planer Defects (2-dimensional defects)
Free surfaces:
Free surfaces are the external surfaces at which the solid
terminates
Adsorbed atom
Adsorbed molecule
Solutes segregated
to interface
Grain
boundaries
in
SrTiO3
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Surface or planer Defects (2-dimensional defects)
Grain Boundaries or Inter-crystalline Boundaries
Low angle grain boundaries (misorientation < 10º)
Two extremes
TILT TWIST
An array of edge dislocations An array of screw dislocations
Low angle grain
boundaries in
Cubic Zirconia
seen using by
TEM
No visible
Grain
Boundary
Dislocation
structures at
the Grain
boundary
Surface or planer Defects (2-dimensional defects)
Twin Boundary
When the atomic arrangement on one side of the surface or boundary in a crystallite is
related to the other side by a symmetry operation (usually a mirror) such type of boundary
is called the twin boundary.
High-resolution micrograph
Mirror
related
variants
Twin plane
Grain Boundary
Stacking Fault
Error in the sequence of stacking atomic planes → Stacking fault
FCC stacking
with a stacking fault …ABC AB AB ABC…
Voids or pores
Inclusions
Dispersants or Second phase particles
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Volumetric or bulk Defects (3-dimensional defects)
Voids or pores:
Voids (or pores) are holes in the solid formed by trapped gases or
by the accumulation of vacancies
OR
Voids (or pores) are caused by gases that are trapped during
solidification or by vacancy condensation in the solid state
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Volumetric or bulk Defects (3-dimensional defects)
Inclusions:
Inclusions are foreign particles or large precipitate
particles.
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Volumetric or bulk Defects (3-dimensional defects)
Dispersants or Second phase particles:
Second phase particles or dispersants vary in size from a
fraction of a micron to the normal grain size (10-100µm), but
are intentionally introduced into the microstructure
BaTiO3
Grains
Grain
boundary
Dispersant or
Voids or pores
Secondary phase
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Color Centers
Color centers are imperfections in crystals that cause color (defects
that cause color by absorption of light). Electrons in the defect region
only absorb light at certain range of wavelength.
ii. Replacement of Al3+ for Si4+ in quartz gives rise to the color of smoky quartz
iii. A ruby (Al2O3) may contain < 1% Cr and it will look pink or red, but the same
material without Cr will be completely colorless
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