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Figure I.1 Some of the metallic and nonmetallic materials used in a typical automobile
MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Automotive Applications of
SMC
Sheet Molding
Plastics and Composites
Compound: n Composite Intensive Vehicles
Polyester Resin and
chopped glass Polyester resin and Glass Mat Preform
With RTM Resin Transfer Molding
SMC
Sheet Molding
Compound
SMC
Sheet Molding
Compound
Classification of Engineering Materials
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Materials
Ceramics Ceramic materials are inorganic Structural ceramics, Lower density than metals, Dinnerware, figurines,
materials with non-metallic refractories, porcelain, strong, low ductility (brittle), low vases, art, bathtubs, sinks,
properties usually processed at glass thermal conductivity, corrosion electrical and thermal
high temperature at some time resistant insulation, sewage pipes,
during their manufacture floor and wall tile, dental
fillings, abrasives, glass
windows
Polymers A polymer contains many Plastics (synthetic, Low density, poor conductors of Fabrics, car parts, packaging
chemically bonded parts or units nylon, liquid crystals, electricity and heat, different materials, bags, packing
that are bonded together to form a adhesives, elastomers optical properties materials (Styrofoam*),
solid. (rubber) fasteners (Velcro*), glue,
containers, telephone
headsets, rubber bands
Composites Composites are two or more Fibreglass (glass and a Properties depend on amount Golf clubs, tennis rackets,
distinct substances that are polymer), plywood and distribution of each type of bicycle frames, tires, cars,
combined to produce a new (layers of wood and material. Collective set of aerospace materials, paint
material with properties not present glue), concrete (cement properties are more desirable
in either individual material. and pebbles) and possible than with any
individual material.
Classification of Materials
Metals Ceramics & Glasses Polymers
• good conductors of • thermally and • very large molecules
electricity and heat electrically insulating • low density, low weight
• lustrous appearance • resistant to high • maybe extremely
• susceptible to temperatures and flexible
corrosion harsh environments
• strong, but • hard, but brittle
deformable
Classification of Materials: A Few Additional Catagories
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Types of Cast Iron:
Gray Cast Iron (obtained by slow cooling)
3.25-3.75% C and 1.5-2.5% Si
Gray appearance
graphite flakes
weak & brittle in tension
stronger in compression
excellent vibration dampening
wear resistant
Machine beds, flywheels, engine blocks and brake drums
White Cast iron(by rapid cooling)
0.8-1.2% Si
White appearance
Hard and brittle
pearlite + cementite
Rail road brake shoes, roll milling rods and crushers
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Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Ductile iron
graphite as nodules not flakes
matrix often pearlite – stronger but less ductile
Crankshafts, heavy duty gears
Malleable iron
heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
graphite in rosettes
reasonably strong and ductile
Compacted graphite iron
relatively high thermal conductivity
good resistance to thermal shock
lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
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Types of Steels
heat
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
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Metals
Tungsten: It improves strength and hardness at elevated temperatures. It does not get softened by tempering.
It also causes grain refinement.
Vanadium: improves strength, toughness, abrasion resistance, and hardness at elevated temperatures; it
inhibits grain growth during heat treatment.
Effects of Alloying Elements
Stainless steels:
• Five types of stainless steels:
1. Austenitic steels
2. Ferritic steels
3. Martensitic steels
4. Precipitation-hardening (PH) steels
5. Duplex-structure steels
Common Nonferrous Metals and Alloys:
Figure: Some common nonferrous metals and alloys, classified by attractive engineering property.
Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) • Mg Alloys
NonFerrous
Cu-Be: -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
• Refractory metals
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
26
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
• Characteristics:
1. High strength to weight ratio
2. Resistance to corrosion
3. High thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Ease of machinability & Non-magnetic
• CP Al: 99%Al, used in cooking utensils, wires, rivets
• Duralumin contains 3.5 -4.5% Cu . Maximum strength at Age-
hardenable condition, Used in automobile aircraft wings, sheets
and rivets
• Y-alloy: is an alloy of copper , nickel and magnesium. Fair High
temperature strength, used in automobile pistons and aircraft
parts
27
Magnesium and magnesium alloys
30
Titanium and titanium alloys
• Titanium (Ti) is expensive, has high strength-to-weight ratio and
corrosion resistance.
• Used as components for aircrafts, jet-engines, racing-cars and
marine crafts.
31
Superalloys
• Superalloys are high-temperature alloys use in jet
engines, gas turbines and reciprocating engines.
Special metals and alloys
38
Alumina (AI2O3, emery, sapphire)
Magnesia (MgO)
39
Ceramic Materials(Applications)
Clay – Shaped, dried, and fired inorganic
material
Examples: Brick, tile, sewer pipe, chimney
flue, china, porcelain, etc.
40
Polyethylene (PE)
Polymethylmethacrylate \
(Acrylic and PMMA)
Nylon, alias Polyamide (PA)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane (PU)
Polyvinylchloride (WC)
Polyethylene tetraphthalate (PET)
Polyethylether Ketone (PEEK)
Epoxies (EP)
Elastomers, such as natural rubber (NR)
42
Polymeric Materials
Distinguishing Characteristics
Compounds consist of mostly organic
elements
Low density
Vulcanization
Chemical process used to form strong
bonds between adjacent polymers to
produce a tough, strong, hard rubber
(automobile tires)
44
45
Fibreglass (GFRP)
Filled polymers
Cermets
46
Composite Materials
Random fibre
47
Composite Materials
Non-uniform solid consisting of two or more different materials
◦ Mechanically or metallurgically bonded
◦ Each of the constituent materials maintains its identity
Properties depend on:
◦ Properties of individual components
◦ Relative amounts
◦ Size, shape, and distribution
◦ Orientation
◦ Degree of bonding
Composite Materials
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC):
Mixture of ceramics and metals reinforced by strong, high-stiffness fibers
49
Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Discontinuous thin fibers of one material are embedded in a matrix
◦ Wood and bamboo are naturally occurring fiber composites
◦ Bricks of straw and mud
◦ Automobile tires
◦ Fibers of nylon, rayon, Kevlar, or steel to reinforce the rubber
◦ Glass fibers
◦ Graphite
◦ Ceramic fibers, metal wires, whiskers
Common objective is high strength and lightweight
◦ Orientation of the fibers is important
Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Table 8-7 and Table 8-8 list properties of common fiber-reinforced materials
Advanced fiber-reinforced composites
◦ Organic or resin matrix composites
◦ Sports equipment, light-weight armor, low-temperature aerospace applications
◦ Metal-matrix composites
◦ Nonflammable, do not absorb water or gases, corrosion resistance
◦ Carbon-carbon composites
◦ High temperature applications
◦ Ceramic-matrix composites
◦ High temperature strength, stiffness, and environmental stability
Particular Composites
1. Consist of discrete particles of one material in a matrix of another material
Concrete
MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Methods of Reinforcing Plastics
MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Table : Representative examples, applications,
and properties for each category of materials
56
Table : Continued
Semiconductors
Silicon Transistors and integrated Unique electrical
circuits behavior
57
Properties of Materials
58
Properties Comparison
59
Chemical Properties
A. Composition :
Composition of a material can be determined by analytical
chemistry. In metals and alloys the percentage of various
elements which make up metals and alloys the decide the
composition.
B. Structure :
This refers to the microstructure of a material.
C. Corrosion Resistance :
It is the deterioration of a material by chemical reaction with its
environment. Corrosion affects both metallic as well as
nonmetallic materials like brick, concrete, etc
Response and impact of environment on material structures
Why mechanical properties are important?
The behavior of material is mainly determined by various mechanical properties of the material
when subjected to different loading conditions. Such properties mainly include Young’s modulus,
various types of strength of the material, hardness, ductility etc. and are found to be very important
both for design & manufacturing viewpoint.
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© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
63
A Common Perspective
Let us consider the common types of Engineering Materials.
These are Metals, Ceramics, Polymers and various types of composites of these.
A composite is a combination of two or more materials which gives a certain benefit to at least one property
→ A comprehensive classification is given in the next slide. The term Hybrid is a superset of composites.
The type of atomic entities (ion, molecule etc.) differ from one class to another, which in turn gives each
class a broad ‘flavour’ of properties.
● Like metals are usually ductile and ceramics are usually hard & brittle
● Polymers have a poor tolerance to heat, while ceramics can withstand high temperatures Bonding and structure are
key factors in determining
● Metals are opaque (in bulk), while silicate glasses are transparent/translucent
the properties of materials
● Metals are usually good conductors of heat and electricity, while ceramics are poor in this aspect.
● If you heat semi-conductors their electrical conductivity will increase, while for metals it will decrease
● Ceramics are more resistant to harsh environments as compared to Metals
Biomaterials are a special class of materials which are compatible with the body of an organism
(‘biocompatible’). Certain metals, ceramics, polymers etc. can be used as biomaterials.
*Note: this use of the word 'lattice' should not be confused with the use of the word in connection with crystallography.
Common materials: with various ‘viewpoints’
Graphite
Glass: amorphous
Ceramics
Crystal
Metals Polymers
Behavior and Manufacturing Properties
Figure 2.2 A typical stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features
MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Strength Elasticity
Hardness Plasticity
Toughness Rigidity
Brittleness Machinability
Ductility Resilience
Malleability Fatigue
Creep
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The characteristics of material that describe the behavior under the action of
external loads are referred as its mechanical properties. The common mechanical
properties are as follows
STRENGTH :
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist loads without failure.
It is usually expressed or measured in terms of maximum load per unit area (i.e.
maximum stress or ultimate strength) that a material can withstand failure and it
varies according to the type of loading .
Further the strength is divided into three types:
1. Tensile Strength:
The tensile strength or tenacity is defined
as the ability of material to resist a stretching
(tensile) load without fracture.
2. Compressive strength:
The ability of a material to resist squeezing
(compressive) load without fracture is called
compressive strength.
3. Shear strength:
The ability of a material to resist transverse
loads i.e. loads tending to separate (or cut)
the material is called shear strength.
STIFFNESS:
It is the ability of material to resist deformation or deflection
under load. Within the elastic limit, stiffness is measured by
the modulus of elasticity.
Stiffness
• The ability of a material to resist bending deformation.
72
ELASTICITY
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
DUCTILITY:
It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture under tensile
load. Due to this property material can drawn out into fine wire without fracture.
It is a measure of the amount of deformation of a material can withstand before
breaking.
It is also the ability of a material by which it can be drawn into wires.
DUCTILITY
• Ability of material to be stretched with out forming neck or voids
Ao A f
%AR x100
Ao
• Another ductility measure:
20
PLASTICITY :
It is the property of a material by virtue of which it undergoes
permanent deformation.
The ability of a material to deform under load and retain its new shape
when the load is removed is called plasticity.
When a material is subjected to an external load of such magnitude
that deformation continues with no apparent further increase in load, the
material is said to have become plastic. In this region the material
experiences permanent deformation and does not return to its original
shape when the load is removed.
PLASTICITY
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
linear linear
elastic elastic
Plastic means permanent! plastic
When material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, the deformation is not recovered
After the removal of load. Plasticity refer to the ability of a material to undergoes
plastic deformation process such as forging, extrusion and rolling.
3
77
BRITTLENESS:
It is the property of sudden fracture without any visible permanent
deformation.
TOUGHNESS:
It describes a material’s resistance to fracture under impact loading. It
is often expressed in terms of the amount of energy a material can
absorb before fracture.
Toughness is not a single property but rather a combination of
strength and ductility.
TOUGHNESS
• Work done on material before it breaks. Energy to break a unit
volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
21
HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting or scratching the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
80
HARDNESS:
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist scratching or indentation by
another hard body. Hardness is directly related to strength.
RESILIENCE:
It is a property of material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume
within the elastic limit.
MACHINABILITY:
The ease with which a given material may be worked or
shaped with a cutting tool is called machinability.
Machinability depends on chemical composition, structure
and mechanical properties.
WELDABILITY:
It is the ability of material to be joined by welding. Weldability
depends on chemical composition, physical properties and
heat treatment to which they are subjected.
CASTABILITY:
Castability of metal refer to the ease with which it can be cast
into different shapes and is concerned with the behavior of
metal in its molten state.
MALLEABILITY:
MALLEABILTY:
It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture
under compressive load. Due to this property metals are hammered and
rolled into thin sheets.
It is the ability of a material by which it can be rolled into sheets.
Malleability is the ability of a material to exhibit large deformation
subjected to compressive force whereas ductility is the ability of a
material to deform upon the application of tensile force.
Aluminium, Copper and gold have good malleability.
FATIGUE :
FATIGUE:
Failure of material under repeated or reversal stresses is called
fatigue.
It is the strength of the materials when subjected to cyclic or rapid
fluctuating load conditions.
Owing to fatigue a material fails at a stress level much below that
under static loads.
The maximum stress to which the material can be subjected without
fatigue failure is known as the endurance limit.
Fatigue
Fatigue – Engineering components or manufacturing equipment are subjected to fluctuating
cyclic (periodic) loads and fails after a certain time or cycles. Materials fails at stress levels below
normal static stress loading.
85
CREEP:
CREEP:
It is the progressive deformation of a material under a constant static
load maintained for a long period of time. It is a slow, temperature-
aided, time-dependent deformation.
It occurs in three stages known as primary, secondary and tertiary
stage.
Creep
The slow and continuous deformation of a material under
steady load is known as creep. This property is given due
consideration while designing I.C. engine, boiler and turbine
components which are subjected to raised temperatures for
long periods in their working conditions.
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