Radio wave propagation and its

related principles
• Phenomenon that occurs between Tx and RX
in free space: guided and unguided
• Radio waves usually contribute from few KHz
to 1016 Hz.
• Here we mean radio waves as VLF to
microwaves
• Environment : earth and its surroundings
which normally has obstacles present.
 Modes of propagation

• Depending on the frequency in use:

• Ground/ surface wave prop.
• Sky/ ionospheric wave prop.
• Space wave prop.
• Beyond horizon :
• Tropospheric scatter
 EM waves
• A WAVE can be defined as a DISTURBANCE
(sound, light, radio waves) that moves through
a MEDIUM (air, water, vacuum).
• Example: person standing in a wheat field.
• Transverse in nature.
• E and H are at right angles to the direction in
which the waves are traveling
• Wave polarization : pol. Of antenna;
orientation of electric field vector in space
• Spherical wave fronts that expand in space.
 Fundamental eqn for free space
propagation
• Friss space equation
• Relates the power received to the power
transmitted between two antennas separated by
a distance R > 2D2/λ. i.e. in the far field of
antenna.
• The friss space eqn is

• (λ/4πR)2 is known as the free space path loss or

spatial attenuation
Earth’s atmosphere
 Modes of propagation
• Depending upon frequency of operation, distance between
TX and RX antennas.
• Ground Wave propagation(up to 2 MHZ):
• At broad cast and lower frequencies.
• i.e. medium, long and very long waves
• A surface wave travels along the surface of the Earth.
• For antennas close to earth followed by lower edge near
ground.
• A surface wave can follow the contours of the Earth
because of the process of diffraction.
• When a surface wave meets an object and the dimensions
of the object do not exceed its wavelength, the wave tends
to curve or bend around the object. The smaller the object,
the more pronounced the diffractive action will be-leads to
losses also.
• Mainly use with vertically polarized antennas
• Surface wave passing over the ground, induces a
voltage in the Earth.
• The induced voltage takes away energy from the
surface wave, thereby weakening, or attenuating, the
wave at greater distances.
• To reduce the attenuation-> induced voltage must be
reduced.
• vertically polarized waves minimize the extent to
which the electric field of the wave is in contact with
the Earth.
• surface wave horizontally polarized, the electric field
of the wave is parallel with the surface of the Earth
and, therefore, is constantly in contact with it.
•On the other hand, when the surface wave is vertically
polarized, the electric field is vertical to the
Earth and merely dips into and out of the Earth's
surface.
•vertical polarization is vastly superior to horizontal
polarization for surface wave propagation.
 Ground wave propagation: space wave(above 30
MHz)
• A space wave travels over the surface of earth.
• The surface wave is impractical for long distance
transmissions at frequencies above 2 MHz
• High frequencies, with their shorter wavelengths, are not
normally diffracted but are absorbed by the Earth at points
relatively close to the transmitting site.
• As the frequency of a surface wave is increased, the more
rapidly the surface wave will be absorbed, or attenuated, by
the Earth.
• With space wave; multiple reflections are not possible at
shorter wavelengths
• On the other hand, if the frequency of a surface wave is very
low i.e. a very long wavelength, the Earth appears to be very
small, and diffraction is sufficient for propagation well beyond
the horizon. using very high-powered transmitters.
Follows two paths :
One through the air directly to the receiving antenna through
troposphere
The other reflected from the ground to the receiving antenna.
•The receiving antenna must be located within the radio horizon of the
transmitting antenna.
•Space waves suffer little ground attenuation and are susceptible to fading.
•Because space waves actually follow two paths of different lengths (direct path and
ground reflected path) to the receiving site and, therefore, may arrive in or out of phase
resulting in strong or faded signal resp..
• Between 30 to 300MHz
• Used with VHF as sky and ground both fail at
VHF.
• Used for VHF i.e. television and radar signals
• Propagation takes through troposphere(16 km
above earth).
• Also known as Tropospheric Propagation
• Known as line of sight propagation
• LOS distance can be increased by increasing
the antenna height
• Now extended to space or satellite
communication
 Sky Wave propagation/short wave Prop.
• Between 2 to 30 MHz(HF band)
• Very long distance communications/point to
point comm.
• Short wave propagation
• Reflection from ionosphere/ ionospheric
propagation
• Round the globe coverage using multiple
reflections.
• 4000Km in one reflection
• Subject to fading as different signals follow
different paths.
• Unaffected by earth’s presence
 Tropospheric scatter or forward scatter
propagation
•There are two types of scattering allowing the signal to be propagated
beyond the line of sight path (around 160 to 1600Km):
Ionospheric- from the turbulences in the lower E layer of
ionosphere(25 to 60MHz).
Tropospheric- turbulences due to constant motion of air in
troposphere(beyond 100MHz).
•Method:
•In sky wave when a signal reaches the horizon, the wave is diffracted
and follows the Earth's curvature.
• Beyond the horizon, the rate of attenuation increases very rapidly and
signals soon become very weak and unusable.
•But in Tropospheric propagation, the turbulence that causes the
scattering can be visualized as a relay station located above the horizon;
• It receives the transmitted energy and then
reradiates it in a forward direction to some
point beyond the line-of-sight distance.
• If wavelength is more the waves are diffracted
in all directions but if it is less they are
directed into a cone angle α.
• A high gain receiving antenna aimed toward
this scattered energy can then capture it.
• The angle at which the receiving antenna
must be aimed to capture the scattered
energy is called the scatter angle.
Tropospheric scatter propagation
 Structure of atmosphere

• Extends 14-18Km above the earth’s surface(equator)

• 8 -10 Km at the polar latitude
• Composition is same throughout
• Temp. and water vapor content decreases with height.
• Inhomogeneous dielectric medium.
• Its Refractive index varies with height.
• Also the velocity of propagation
Stratosphere
• Tropopause starts at the top of troposphere and
ends at stratosphere
• stratosphere ->About 50 Km from earth’s surface
• The temp. remains constant throughout the belt.
• Increases after this layer
• In stratosphere , no intermixing of air currents
takes place(flow is horizontal).
• The thin ozone layer in the upper stratosphere
has a high concentration of ozone, a
particularly reactive form of oxygen.->
responsible for protection from harmful UV
rays.
• The mesosphere is located about 50 to 85
kilometers (90 Km appx.) above the Earth's surface.
• The stratosphere and mesosphere are referred to as
the middle atmosphere.
• Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with
increasing altitude.
• This is due to decreasing solar heating and
increasing cooling by CO2 radiative emission.
• The top of the mesosphere, called the meso pause, is
the coldest place on Earth.
• Temperatures in the upper mesosphere fall as low as
−100 °C (173 K; −148 °F), varying according to
latitude and season.
 Ionosphere
• The ionosphere is very thin , absorbs radiant
energy from the sun
• It is also responsible for absorbing the most
energetic photons from the Sun, and for
reflecting radio waves, thereby making long-
distance radio communication possible.
• Formation of free electrons, positive and
negative ions occurs in this region at low
pressure.
• Ionizing agents are: UV, α,beta , cosmic rays
and meteors at low pressure.
• Because of constant motion, frequent
collisions occur and recombination continues
all the time.
• So Low ionization below 50Km as UV does not
affect and more recombination -> continuous
motion.
• Above 400 Km -> again lesser air particles
• Intermediate region has appreciable ionization
• Ionosphere has several layers; each
layer(gases) getting ionized at a different
pressure.
• Because signals are bent by atmosphere
at different heights-> different layers.
• The sky wave bent by them depends from
day to day , month to month and year to
year.
• Each layer has a critical frequency: which
it can bend down to earth.
• Layers: During day : D, E , F1 and F2
• During night : E and F.
 .

Ionospheric layers
D layer:
• 50 – 90 KM
• during day time only-> as recombination is
more
• Ionization rate during day is 1014 to 1016 per
cubic centimeter.
• Ionization is due to ionization of oxygen at its
first ionization potential.
• CF = 100 KHz
• Not good for HF
 E -region
• 90 -140 Km
• Heavily ionized layer-> provides a mirror for
bending the EM waves from ionosphere.
• By reflection/ refraction.
• Also known as Kennelly Heaviside region
• Good during day and lesser at night time
• Again maximum in summer and week in
winter.
• 105 to 4.5 X 10 4 -- Day
• 5 X 103 to 10 4 ------ Night
• CF : 3 to 5 MHz
 Sporadic E layer
• Is an irregular E region; anywhere between 90 to
130 Km from earth.
• Height : 5 – 10 Km
• Occurs at specific regions(both day and
night):polar and equatorial regions.
• Produced by meteoric ionization
• Vertical transport of ion clouds
• Thunder storms and geomagnetic disturbances.
• Produces M type of Reflection.
• Two reflections at F layer and one at Es layer.
• Helps in long distance scatter propagation.
F 1 and F2 regions/ Appleton regions.
• F1 :140- 400Km above earth
• Always remains ionized
• Used for long distance propagation during
night hours
• During day : split into F1 and F2 layers
• CF of F1 : 5 to 7 MHz
• Electron density: 2 X 105 to 4.5 X 105 .
• Formed by ionization of oxygen atoms.
• Almost all HF waves are absorbed by this
layer.
 F2 layer
• 250 – 400Km during day time.
• 300 Km at night time
• Electron density : 3 X 105 to 2 X 106 .
• Low air density : disappears very slowly at night.
• CF : 10 MHz and about 5 to 12 MHz at lower
stations.
• Ionization due to UV, X rays and corpuscular
radiations
• Split up of F1 and F2 :
Because of tidal effects and increasing temp. with
increasing height.
 Propagation through ionosphere
• Reflection/ refraction from ionosphere takes
place:
• Reduction of dielectric constant due to
presence of electrons(electron current flowing
due to radio wave’s effect) in the ionosphere.
• This causes bending of waves from high
electron density to lower electron density
region.
• Refractive index μ =(1-81N/f2)1/2
Bending of radio waves by ionosphere
• We know that Refractive index μ = (εr)1/2
=(1-81N/f2)1/2
N – electron density/cm3
F- freq. in KHz

• Real values of refractive index are always less

than unity.

• If electron density Is higher and freq. is lower;

we have imaginary refractive index => radio
waves get attenuated and not bent.
• μ = sin i/sin r =(1-81N/f2)1/2

• As μ < 1; sin i<sin r

• Method : Now if the layers of atmosphere go

on becoming denser in terms of electron
density, i.e. refractive index goes on
decreasing; a point comes where any ray sent
to the atmosphere travels parallel to the earth .

• At this point total internal reflection takes

place and the ray is refracted towards earth
 Critical frequency
• Neglecting the effect of earth’s
magnetic field.
• Highest frequency reflected by a
specific layer of atmosphere at
vertical incidence
• Therefore sin i = 0;
• 1- 81Nmax/f2 = 0
• fc = 9(Nmax) 1/2
 Virtual height
• Normally any ray sent upwards at the
ionosphere gets refracted towards the earth
from region of high electron density to a
region of low electron density
• Considering this phenomenon as reflection
instead of refraction; the vertical path from
the point of reflection to earth is called virtual
height.
• Virtual height is greater than actual height.
• Knowing virtual height, we can calculate the
angle of incidence required for a wave to
return to the desired point.
 Maximum Usable Frequency
• The frequency at which a wave is reflected
back to earth at some specific angle of
incidence.
• Is specified for a given distance and a given
ionospheric layer.
• Freq. Higher than MUF is not reflected back at
all
• Normally ranges between 8 to 10 MHz and
• Max distance is normally 1000Km
• μ = sin i/ sin r
• Since for refraction at layers with higher
electron densities; sin r = sin 90 = 1
• Sin i = (1 – 81 Nmax/ fmuf2)1/2
• As f2c = 81 Nmax
• Fmuf = sec i. fc
• Also
• F muf = fc{1 + (D/2h)2 }1/2 for flat earth
• D- propagation distance
• H- height of layer
 Lowest usable frequency
• The lowest frequency that can be propagated
in the atmosphere at a required distance.
• Limited by noise and absorption
• Also depends upon the characteristics of link
design
• During day time : affected by the absorption in
D layer
• Night time: by the noise present in the
atmosphere.
 Skip distance
• Dead zone on earths surface not covered by
any wave neither ground nor sky: skip zone
• Distance across it is known as skip distance
• As radio waves at high angle of incidence
escape the atmosphere .
• At a sufficient angle the first refraction takes
place and the waves return to the earth.
• So a minimum distance from the Tx to the
point where the sky waves reaches the earth.
• The freq. That makes a wave
correspond to the skip distance is
the maximum usable frequency.

• D skip = 2h{(fmuf/fc)2 -1}1/2