STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

IN MINING
Trench – a long, narrow, deep depression of the sea floor, with relatively steep sides.
Philippine
Fault
GEOMORPHOLOGY of the
PHILIPPINE FAULT in LEYTE
ISLAND
• Structural Geology
- it is the branch of geology concerned with the form,
arrangement and internal structure of the rocks as a
result from deformation.
- it deals with the geological processes through which
the application of force results in the transformation of
shape, arrangement or internal fabric of the rock into
another shape, arrangement or internal fabric.
• Concern of Structural Geology
- movements that affect solid rocks from forces within
the earth causing folds, faults, joints and foliation
- movements of magma;
- deformation of rocks.
• Objectives of Structural Geology
Geologist are concerned with these 3 major problems:
1) What is the structure in rock bodies?
- Shape & size of structure in rock bodies
2) When did it develop?
- Relate structure to chronology;
- Determine the sequence in which the structural
features are developed;
- Ages
3) Under what physical conditions did it form?
- Temperature and pressure the structural feature
is formed;
- Stress distribution
• Geologic Structures:
Geologic Structures are produced when rocks
break or bend due to applied stresses with the
earth – they are said to deform. Plate tectonic
processes and burial of sediments are two
examples processes which lead to deformation of
rocks.
• Geologic structures are interesting because they
reflect tectonic forces. Currently active forces can
cause earthquakes; ancient forces reflect such
major events as continental rifting, continental
collisions, and strike-slip motions that would
otherwise be hidden from scrutiny. Geologic
structures are divided into faults, joints, and folds.
Types of Geologic Structures
1. Folds – permanent wavelike
deformation in layered rock or
sediments;
2. Faults – a fracture in bedrock along
which rocks on one side have moved
relative to the other side.
3. Joints – a fracture on a rock without
noticeable movement/displacement.
Importance of the Study of Geologic Structures
1. Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps
for the accumulation and concentration of fluids such
as oil/petroleum and natural gas;
2. Faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as
permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids and the
resulting concentration areas for base and precious
metal deposits;
3. Veins of minerals containing various metals
commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally
complex areas;
4. Faults, joints, and fractures can act as a passageway
for groundwater and a host for valuable mineral
deposits as ores of gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc
and other metals;
5. Unconformities can be used to mark geologic time
boundaries for eras, periods, and epochs
6. In engineering geology, structural geology which is
concerned with the physical and mechanical
properties of natural rocks. Structural fabrics and
defects such as faults, folds, joints, etc. are internal
weaknesses of rocks which may affect stability of
human engineered structure like dams, road cuts,
open pit mines, U/G mines, and road tunnels;
7. To environmental geologist, hydrogeologist and
hydrologist, structure sites of groundwater flow and
penetration which may affect for instance, seepage
of toxic substances from waste dumps or seepage
of salty waters into aquifers.
• Stress and Strain
Stress – is the force applied to a plane divided by the area of
the plane and it is what causes rocks to deform.
Strain – The result of stress applied to a body, causing
deformation of its shape and/or a change of volume.
Types of Stresses
1. Compressive Stress (which results in shortening or
flattening) – it is the stress generated by forces directed toward
one another on opposite sides of a real or imaginary plane.
2. Tensile Stress (which results in stretching and elongation) –
it is the stress generated by forces directed away from one
another or opposite sides of a real or imaginary plane.
3. Shear Stress (which results in a sort of smearing) – it is the
stress (force per unit area) that acts parallel to a (fault) plane
and tends to cause the rocks on either side of the plane to slide
by one another.
Types of Stresses
When stressed, how does a rock mass respond?
That is, how does the rock mass accommodate
strain?
The type of rock, the temperature and pressure,
and even the rate of stress all influence how a
rock will accommodate strain. In summary,
rocks can behave in an elastic, ductile (plastic),
or a brittle fashion when stressed. Elastic strain
occurs if the material recovers its initial shape
after the stress is reduced or removed. Plastic
or ductile strain occurs when the rock bends but
doesn’t break, and brittle strain occurs when the
rock breaks. Seismic waves are a good
example of elastic strain.
• Elastic Response – the deformation of a body in
proportion to the applied stress and its recovery once
the stress is removed.
• Elastic Limit – the maximum amount of stress a
material can withstand before it deforms permanently.
• Ductile Response – the permanent deformation,
without fracture in the shape of a solid.
• Brittle Response – the fracturing of a rock in
response to stress with little or no permanent
deformation prior to its rupture.
• Igneous and non-foliated metamorphic rocks having
grains chemically strongly bonded are most likely to
undergo “Brittle Deformation”.
• Sedimentary rock containing weak cements well-
developed zones of weakness (such as bedding
planes) are likely to undergo “Plastic Deformation”.
As a P-wave moves through a rock mass, for
example, the rock mass will compress, but after the P-
wave moves through, the rock mass will uncompress
and return to its original shape. Under increased
stress, a rock mass will continue to strain elastically,
but only to a point. Beyond the elastic limit, the rock
mass will either break or bend. In general, rocks
subjected to tectonic stress at plate boundaries will
exhibit brittle behavior at or near Earth’s surface and
ductile behavior in Earth’s interior where temperatures
and pressures are higher. Low rates of stress are
more conducive to ductile behavior, whereas higher
stress rates, particularly at low temperatures and
pressures, typically result in brittle behavior.
• Factors Controlling Behavior of Rocks
under Tectonic Stress
1. Temperature & Pressure – rocks under high
temperature and pressure tend to undergo
deformation without breaking (plastic/ductile
deformation) when subjected to a tectonic stress.
Rocks under low temperature and pressure tend to
fracture (brittle deformation) when subject to a tectonic
stress.
2. Time (over which the tectonic stress is applied) –
Tectonic stresses applied to rock over a long period of
time are more likely to result in permanent
deformation.
When rocks undergo permanent plastic/ductile
deformation, a FOLD develops.
When rocks undergo brittle deformation, a FAULT
develops.
• Stages of Rock Deformation

Elastic

Plastic

Rupture
• Causes of Rock Displacement/Deformation
1.Tectonic Plate Movement;
2. Subduction,
3. Volcanic Activity
4. Intrusive Igneous Activity
• Tectonic Plate – any of the internally rigid crustal
blocks of the lithosphere which move horizontally
• Subduction – the process of which one crustal
blocks descends beneath another such as the descent
of Pacific Plate beneath the Andean plate along
Andean Trench.
 STRIKE AND DIP OF STRUCTURE
* Strike and Dip are attitudes in the rocks produced by geologic
forces and present after the rocks are folded (bent) or faulted
(cracked and moved along the crack).
A. Strike
– is an imaginary line with compass direction constructed on
the surface of a sedimentary bed or fault in which all points
on that line are of equal elevation--the compass direction is
usually expressed as a bearing
B. Dip
– is an imaginary line constructed down-slope on a
sedimentary bed or fault--the dip direction is perpendicular to
the strike direction and usually expressed in bearing and an
angle of tilt (dip) measured from the horizontal plane to the
top of a bed or fault--a dip angle may not exceed 90 degrees
Strike and Dip
 Folds
• Folded Structure - are warps in rock layers and occur
bended upwards, downwards, or sideways.
• Folds - are wavelike bends in layered rock. It can be
defined as a bend in rock that is the response to
compressional forces. Folds are most visible in rocks
that contain layering. Folds can develop in a variety of
ways in response to any type of stress. In general,
however, most folding is associated with
compressional stress at convergent plate.
• Deformation of rock involves changes in the shape
and/or volume of these substances. Changes in shape
and volume occur when stress and strain causes rock
to buckle and fracture or crumple into folds.
For plastic deformation of rock to occur a number
of conditions must be met, including:
– The rock material must have the ability to
deform under pressure and heat.
– The higher the temperature of the rock the
more plastic it becomes.
– Pressure must not exceed the internal
strength of the rock. If it does, fracturing
occurs.
Geologic Map Showing Structures
This photo shows deformation of rocks resulting in folded structures--internal
Earth forces can cause such geologic structures to form--geologic structures
can harbor important energy sources and valuable mineral ore deposits
• Parts of a Folds
1. Limbs or Flanks of the Fold – the sides of a fold
or the outer parts of the fold as it moves away from the
axis of a fold.
2. Axial Plane - an imaginary plane of symmetry that
bisects a fold. It is surface connecting all the hinges.
3.Hinge Line or axis - is the line formed by the
intersection of the axial plane with the folded surface.
4. Crestal Plane – the plane or surface formed by all
the crests.
5. Trough – is the line occupying the lowest part of
the fold, or more precisely the line connecting the
lowest parts of the same bed.
6. Trough Plane – the plane connecting the lines
connecting the troughs.
 Parts of a Fold
a

Hinges a-a’

a’
 Crestal
plane

c’

Limb
c

t’ Trough
plane

t
Axial
Plane
•Kinds of Folds
1. Anticline - is a series of up-arched strata with side
portions (limbs) dipping in opposite directions away
from the central portion of fold split by a plane called
the axial plane and observed in the top (plan) view as
the fold axis--an eroded surface indicates the rocks
become progressively younger away from the fold axis.
They are called upfolds where the rock layers tilt (that
is, dip) away from the hinge line or axis,
2. Syncline - is a series of down-arched strata with
limbs dipping inwards in opposite directions towards
the fold axis--an eroded surface indicates the rocks
become progressively older away from the fold axis.
They are called downfolds, where the rock layers dip
toward the hinge line or axis
3. Dome - is an up-arched series of strata with
beds on all sides dipping away from the center
throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface
indicates the rocks become progressively
younger away from the center of the structure.
4. Basin - is a down-arched series of strata with
beds on all sides dipping in towards the center
throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface
indicates the rocks become progressively older
away from the center of the structure.
5. Monocline - is a bend in the strata resulting in
a local steepening in dip of the strata which is
almost flat lying on both sides away from the
bend-- there is only one direction of dip in the
monocline.
• An Anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an arch
like structure with the rock beds (or limbs) dipping way from the
center of the structure.
Anticline
• A Syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped
downward Both anticlines and synclines are the result
of compressional stress.
Syncline Fold
• Monocline are classified by geologists as the simplest
type of fold. This fold involves a slight bend in
otherwise parallel layers of rock.
Monocline
DOMES AND BASINS
• Specific Types of Anticlines & Synclines
1. Symmetrical fold--is a fold with the sides showing a mirror
image with respect to the axial plane. It is one in which the
axial surface is essentially vertical or upright.
2. Asymmetrical fold--a fold without a mirror image in respect
to the axial plane. It is one in which the axial surface is
inclined
3. Overturned fold--a fold in which the axial plane is tilted and
beds may dip in same direction on both sides of the axial
plane.
4. Recumbent fold--a fold with the axial plane horizontal. It is
one in which the axial plane is essentially horizontal.
5. Chevron fold – is one in which the hinges are sharp and
angular
6. Box fold – is one in which the crest is broad and flat
7. Fan Fold – is one in which both limbs overturned.
8. Drag Folds – forms when a competent bed slides past an
incompetent bed.
5. Non-plunging and plunging folds
• Plunging is the tilting of the fold towards the front or back
end--most anticlines and synclines have some degree of
plunge
• Non-plunging folds contact lines separating formations
shown in the surface view are parallel and straight---the
contact lines in one of the two profile views are horizontal
and parallel---the contacts in the other profile view are
arched up or down--in plunging folds contact lines in the
surface view are curved---contact lines in one of the
profile views dip in the direction of plunge---contact lines
in the other profile view are arched up or down--the
surface contact lines between formations are convexed
(closed) in the direction of plunge for the anticline and
concave (open) in the direction of plunge for the syncline
• More complex fold types can develop in situations
where lateral pressures become greater. The greater
pressure results in anticlines and synclines that are
inclined and asymmetrical as shown below.
• A RECUMBENT FOLD develops if the center of the fold moves from being
once vertical to a horizontal position. Recumbent folds are commonly found
in the core of mountain ranges and indicate that compression and/or shear
forces were stronger in one direction. Extreme stress and pressure can
sometimes cause the rocks to shear along a plane of weakness creating a
“Faults”. WHEN a fault and a fold combines in a rock formed an “Overthrust
Fault”.
Overturned/Recumbent Fold
Plunging Fold
Plunging Fold
Plunge Characteristics
 Faults
• Fault Structure - is a structure with major
displacement of rock material along a crack in a rock.
• Faults are brittle fractures along which sliding has
taken place.
• Faults are ruptures along which the opposite walls
have past each other. The essential feature is the
“Differential Movement” parallel to the surface of the
fracture.
• Fault-line, Fault trace or fault outcrop – is the
intersection of the fault with the surface of the earth.
• A fault can be defined as the displacement of once
connected blocks of rock along a fault plane. This can
occur in any direction with the blocks moving away
from each other. Faults occur from both tensional and
compressional forces
Fault Line
 Parts of a Fault
• Hanging Wall – is the block above the fault
• Footwall – the block below the fault.
• Strike of the Fault – is the trend of a horizontal line in
the plane of the fault
• Dip of the Fault – is the angle between the horizontal
surface and the plane of the fault.
• Fault-line, Fault trace or fault outcrop – is the
intersection of the fault with the surface of the earth.
• Hade – an angle equals 90 degrees less than the
angle of dip. It also defined as the angle between the
fault plane and a vertical plane that strikes parallel to
the fault.
• Fault Plane – a planar fault surface
• Slickenside – a surface that is polished and smoothly
striated and results from slippage along fault plane.
 Parts of a Fault

Fault Line
Dip

Hade
 a
b

Net Slip
(a-b)
• Classification of Faults:
Faults like joints maybe classified on the basis
of their geometry or their genesis. The bases of
five different geometrical classifications are:
1. Rake of the net slip (Net slip is the total displacement; it is
the distance measured on the fault surface between two formerly adjacent
points situated on opposite walls of the fault)

2. Attitude of fault relative to the attitude of

the adjacent rocks;
3. the pattern of faults;
4. the angle at which the faults dip
5. the apparent movement of the fault
• Geometric Classification
1. Strike-slip fault – is one in which the net slip is
parallel to the strike of the fault; that is the strike
equals the net slip. In strike-slip faults, movement is
primarily horizontal.
2. Dip-slip fault – is one in which the net slip is up or
down the dip of the fault; that is the dip slip equals the
net slip. In dip-slip faults, movement is parallel to the
dip of the fault plane and typically shows a strong
component of vertical motion.
3. Diagonal slip fault – one in which the net slip is
diagonally up or down the fault plane
4. Strike Fault – one that strikes essentially parallel to
the strike of the adjacent rocks.
• Genetic Classification:
1. Thrust/Reverse Fault – a fault along which the
hanging wall (HW) has moved up relative to the
footwall (FW). Thrust fault dips less than 450 while
reverse fault dips more than 450. Overthrust fault
are low-angle faults which the net slip is large,
generally in miles. Reverse faults develop in response
to compressional stress.
2. Strike-slip Fault (also called wrench fault) – are
those along which displacement has been essentially
parallel to the strike of the fault. It is also a fault with
horizontal movement along the cracked rock--
movement can be left lateral or right lateral. Ex. San
Andreas fault in California
3. Oblique fault - is a fault which has a major dip slip
and strike slip component
4. Normal Fault – a fault along which the HW has
moved relatively downward. Normal faults develop in
response to tensile stress.
5. Horst and Graben
Horst – a block, generally long compared to its
width that has been raised relatively to the blocks
on either side. A horst fault is the development of
two normal or reverse faults causing a block of
rock to be pushed up.
Graben – a block generally long compared to its
width, that has been lowered relative to the blocks
on either side. A graben fault is produced when
tensional stresses result in the subsidence of a
block of rock.
Reverse/Thrust Fault
Normal Faults
Reverse Fault
Horst/Graben
A Strike-slip fault - same rupture strike regardless of overburden
B Normal fault - same strike, but in between previous rupture
C Thrust fault - same strike, different location
Slickenlines
 1990 RUPTURE along the
DIGDIG branch of the PF
in N. VISCAYA

Fault Line
• Criteria for the Recognition of Faults:
1. Discontinuity of Structures (sudden end of
different beds);
2. Repetition or omission of strata;
3. Features characteristic of fault planes
(slickenside, drag, breccia, gouge;
4. Silicification and Mineralization
5. Sudden change in sedimentary facies (an
observable attributes of rock or stratigraphic
units)
6. Physiographic Data (presence of fault scarp,
springs, offset streams, lineament)
 Joints
• Joints - fractures in the rocks in which there is
no appreciable displacement along the crack--
often joints occur in 2 sets of cracks intersecting
between 45-90 degrees dividing the rocks into
rectangular blocks
• The only difference between faults and joints is
that joints don’t show evidence of slippage
whereas faults do. Joints are arguably the most
common geologic structure and can form in a
variety of ways, for example, due to cooling and
contraction, expansion, slight bending, or
regional uplift.
• Causes of joints
1. Unloading or sheeting effects (see Weathering)
2. Stresses in a cooling magma
3. Tectonic stresses causing fracturing essentially
contemporaneously with the tectonic activity
4. Residual stress due to events that happened long
before the fracturing
5. Contraction due to shrinkage because of cooling or
dessication
6. Surficial movements such as downhill movements
of rocks or mountain glaciers
• Classification of Joints:
1. Geometrical
2. Genetic
Geometrical Classification:
1. Strike Joints – are those that strike
parallel to the strike of the bedding of a
sedimentary rocks.
2. Diagonal Joints – are those striking in a
direction that lies between the strike and
direction of dip of the associated rocks.
3. Bedding Joints – are parallel to the
bedding of the associated sedimentary rocks.
• Genetic Classification of Joints
Joints are genetically classified as
1. Shear Fractures
2. Tension Fractures
Extension Joints – they are perpendicular to the
axes of folds resulting from slight elongation
parallel to the axes of the folds
Release Joints – they are parallel to the axial
planes of folds and forms at right angles to the
axis of compression when load is released.
• Ultimate Causes of Joints:
1. Tectonic stresses causing fracturing essentially
contemporaneously with tectonic activity;
2. Residual Stress, due to events that happened
long before the fracturing;
3. Contraction due to shrinkage because of cooling
or dessication (mudcracks);
4. Surficial movements such as downhill movement
of rocks or mountain glaciers
 Unconformity
• Unconformity – is a surface of erosion or non-
deposition –usually the former --- that separates the
younger strata from older rocks. They are structural
features that comprised a sequence of geologic
events in which there is often a significant portion of
the geologic history lost through massive erosion.
Unconformities are used to help separate geologic
time divisions.
• The Stages of Development of Unconformity:
1. Formation of the older rocks
2. Uplift and subaerial erosion
3. Deposition of younger strata
• Kinds of Unconformities
1. Disconformity
• a series of sedimentary rocks form, next a non-
deposition or massive erosion event occurs, then
a series of more sedimentary rocks are
deposited.
2. Angular unconformity
• a series of sedimentary rocks form, next rocks
are folded or tilted, next a non-deposition or
massive erosion occurs, then a series of more
sedimentary rocks form.
3. Nonconformity
• igneous or metamorphic rock form, next a non-
deposition or massive erosion event occurs, then
a series of sedimentary rocks form
Disconformity
Angular Unconformity
Non-conformity
Unconformity
 Effects of Geologic Structure to
Engineering Structures
1. Liquefaction
2. Ground Subsidence
3. Landslide
4. Rock Fall
5. Settlement
Soil Creeping
LIQUEFACTION
LIQUEFACTION
Dagupan, Pangasinan
Subsidence Fissure, Arizona
Subsidence

Subsidence Pit, US
Baguio, 2000
Landslide

Leyte, March 2001

 Landslide

Cherry Hills Subdivision, 1999

Rock Fall

New York, 1989

 Definition of Terms
• Stratigraphy – is that phase of geology treating the
sequence in which formation have been deposited.
• Sedimentation – deals with the deposition of stratified
rocks.
• Paleontology – is the study of fossils particular on
rocks containing organic remains.
• Petrology – is the study of systematic descriptions of
rocks and the study of its origin.
• Mineralogy – deals with the classification, atomic
structure, and genesis of minerals.
• Volcanology – study of volcanoes and volcanic rocks
• Geomorphology – is the study of land forms.
• Geophysics – involves the application of physics to
geological problems
• Seismology – deals with the propagation of elastic
waves through rock either caused by earthquake or
artificial means.
• Geochemistry – concerned with the application of the
principle of chemistry to geological problems.
• Geochronology – deals w/ the dating of geological
events.
• Foliation – a laminated structure formed by
segregation of different minerals into layers that are
parallel to schistosity
• Schistosity – rocks tend to split along parallel planes
• Fracture – a crack, joint, or fault in rock due to
mechanical failure by stress
• Fissure – a narrow cave passageway or an
extensive crack in a rock.
• Fault Scarp – a steep cliff formed by
movement along one side of a fault. Also known
as cliff displacement, fault cliff.
• Lineament – a straight or gently curved,
lenghty topographic feature expressed as
depression or line of depressions.