Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Photonic Communications
Systems & Devices
Winter 2006
Instructor: Hamed Majedi
Content
1- Overview of Photonic Communications
2- Optical Fiber: Waveguiding, Propagation Modes
- Single Mode Fiber
- Fiber Materials & Fabrication Procedures
3- Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers
4- Photonic Sources & Transmitters: LED & Laser Diodes
- Single Mode Lasers, Modulation & Noise
5- Laser-Fiber Connections (Power Launching & Coupling)
6- Photodetectors
7- Digital Photonic Receivers & Digital Transmission systems
8- WDM & Photonic Networks
Lab & Computer Simulations
• Lab sessions
- Fiber Attenuation Measurement
- Dispersion Measurement
- Spectral Attenuation Measurements
Overview of Photonic
Communications
Optics
• Optics is an old subject involving the generation, propagation
& detection of light.
• Three major developments are responsible for rejuvenation of
optics & its application in modern technology:
1- Invention of Laser
2- Fabrication of low-loss optical Fiber
3- Development of Semiconductor Optical Device
As a result, new disciplines have emerged & new terms describing them
have come into use, such as:
- Electro-Optics: is generally reserved for optical devices in
which electrical effects play a role, such as lasers, electro-optic
modulators & switches.
Photonics
• Optoelectronics: refers to devices & systems that are
essentially electronics but involve lights, such as LED, liquid
crystal displays & array photodetectors.
• Quantum Electronics: is used in connection with devices &
systems that rely on the interaction of light with matter, such
as lasers & nonlinear optical devices.
• Quantum Optics: Studies quantum & coherence properties of
light.
• Lightwave Technology: describes systems & devices that are
used in optical communication & signal processing.
• Photonics: in analogy with electronics, involves the control of
photons in free space and matter.
Photonic Communications
• Photonics reflects the importance of the photon nature of light. Photonics
& electronics clearly overlap since electrons often control the flow of
photons & conversely, photons control the flow of electrons.
• The scope of Photonics:
1- Generation of Light (coherent & incoherent)
2- Transmission of Light (through free space, fibers, imaging systems,
waveguides, … )
3- Processing of Light Signals (modulation, switching, amplification,
frequency conversion, …)
4- Detection of Light (coherent & incoherent)
• Photonic Communications: describes the applications of
photonic technology in communication devices & systems,
such as transmitters, transmission media, receivers & signal
processors.
Why Photonic Communications?
• Extremely wide bandwidth: high carrier frequency ( a wavelength of
1552.5 nm corresponds to a center frequency of 193.1 THz!) &
consequently orders of magnitude increase in available transmission
bandwidth & larger information capacity.
• Optical Fibers have small size & light weight.
• Optical Fibers are immune to electromagnetic interference (high voltage
transmission lines, radar systems, power electronic systems, airborne
systems, …)
• Lack of EMI cross talk between channels
• Availability of very low loss Fibers (0.25 to 0.3 dB/km), high
performance active & passive photonic components such as
tunable lasers, very sensitive photodetectors, couplers, filters,
• Low cost systems for data rates in excess of Gbit/s.
BW demands in communication systems
Type & Format Uncompressed Compressed
applications
Voice, digital 4 kHz voice 64 kbps 16-32 kbps
telegraphy
Audio 16-24 kHz 512-748 kbps 32-384 kbps
(MPEG, MP3)
Video conferencing 176 144 or 352 2-35.6 Mbps 64 kbps-1.544
288 frames @ 10- Mbps (H.261
30 frames/s coding)
Data transfer, E- 1-10 Mbps
commerce,Video
entertainment
Full-motion 720480frames @ 249 Mbps 2-6Mbps (MPEG-2)
broadcast video 30 frames/s
HDTV 1920 1080 1.6 Gbps 19-38 Mbps
frames@ 30 frames (MPEG-2)
/s
Early application of fiber optic communication
• Digital link consisting of time-division-multiplexing (TDM) of 64 kbps
voice channels (early 1980).
• 1950s:Imaging applications in
medicine & non-destructive testing,
lighting
• 1960s:Research on lowering the fiber
loss for telecom. applications.
• 1970s:Development of low loss
fibers, semiconductor light sources &
photodetectors
• 1980s:single mode fibers (OC-3 to
OC-48) over repeater sapcings of 40
km.
• 1990s:Optical amplifiers (e.g.
EDFA), WDM (wavelength division
multiplexing) toward dense-WDM.
Quantum Optics
Electromagnetic Optics
Wave Optics
Ray Optics
Engineering Model
: is divergence operation
: is curl operation
Ex
Direction of Propagation k
x
z z
y
By
Ex
Ex = Eo sin(wt–kz)
A plane EM wave travelling alongz, has the same Ex (or By) at any point in a
given xy plane. All electric field vectors in a givenxy plane are therefore in phase.
The xy planes are of infinite extent in thex and y directions.
S.O.Kasap, optoelectronics and Photonics Principles and Practices, prentice hall, 2001
Wavelength & free space
• Wavelength is the distance over which the phase changes by 2 .
v
[2-10]
f
• In vacuum (free space):
10 9
0 [F/m] 0 4 10 7 [H/m]
36 [2-11]
v c 3 10 8 m/s 0 120 []
EM wave in Media
n r [2-13]
Intensity & power flow of TEM wave
1
• The poynting vector S E H for TEM wave is parallel to the
2
wavevector k so that the power flows along in a direction normal to the
wavefront or parallel to k. The magnitude of the poynting vector is the
intensity of TEM wave as follows:
2
E0
I [W/m 2 ] [2-14]
2
Connection between EM wave optics & Ray
optics
According to wave or physical optics viewpoint, the EM waves radiated by
a small optical source can be represented by a train of spherical wavefronts
with the source at the center. A wavefront is defined a s the locus of all
points in the wave train which exhibit the same phase. Far from source
wavefronts tend to be in a plane form. Next page you will see different
possible phase fronts for EM waves.
When the wavelength of light is much smaller than the object, the
wavefronts appear as straight lines to this object. In this case the light wave
can be indicated by a light ray, which is drawn perpendicular to the phase
front and parallel to the Poynting vector, which indicates the flow of
energy. Thus, large scale optical effects such as reflection & refraction can
be analyzed by simple geometrical process called ray tracing. This view of
optics is referred to as ray optics or geometrical optics.
Wave fronts
(constant phase surfaces) Wave fronts
Wave fronts
k
P E
k r
rays
P
O
z
A perfect plane wave A perfect spherical wave A divergent beam
(a) (b) (c)
S.O.Kasap, optoelectronics and Photonics Principles and Practices, prentice hall, 2001
General form of linearly polarized plane waves
E e x E0 x cos(ωt kz) e y E0 y cos(ωt kz)
E E E0 x E0 y
2 2
[2-15]
E0 y
tan (
1
)
E0 x
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
Elliptically Polarized plane waves
E e x Ex e y E y
e x E 0 x cos(ωt kz) e y cos(ωt kz )
2
Ex E y E x E y
2
Circular polarizati on : E0 x E0 y E0 & [2-17]
2
: right circularly polarized, - : left circularly polarized
Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. Depending on
the incidence angle with respect to c , which is determined by the ratio of the refractive
indices, the wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a)1 c (b) 1 c (c)
1 c and total internal reflection (TIR).
n2
sin c [2-19]
n1
Phase shift due to TIR
• The totally reflected wave experiences a phase shift however
which is given by:
N n 2 cos 2 1 1 p n n 2 cos 2 1 1
tan ; tan [2-20]
2 n sin 1 2 sin 1
n1
n
n2
Numerical aperture:
NA n sin 0 max n1 n2 n1 2
2 2
[2-23]
n1 n2
[2-24]
n1
Optical rays transmission through dielectric slab
waveguide
n1 n 2 ; c c O
2
For TE-case, when electric waves are normal to the plane of incidence
must be satisfied with following relationship:
n1 d sin m n1 cos n2
2 2 2
tan [2-25]
2 n1 sin
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
Note
• Home work 2-1) Find an expression for ,considering that the electric
field component of optical wave is parallel to the plane of incidence (TM-
case).
• As you have seen, the polarization of light wave down the slab waveguide
changes the condition of light transmission. Hence we should also consider
the EM wave analysis of EM wave propagation through the dielectric slab
waveguide. In the next slides, we will introduce the fundamental concepts
of such a treatment, without going into mathematical detail. Basically we
will show the result of solution to the Maxwell’s equations in different
regions of slab waveguide & applying the boundary conditions for electric
& magnetic fields at the surface of each slab. We will try to show the
connection between EM wave and ray optics analyses.
EM analysis of Slab waveguide
• For each particular angle, in which light ray can be faithfully transmitted
along slab waveguide, we can obtain one possible propagating wave
solution from a Maxwell’s equations or mode.
• The modes with electric field perpendicular to the plane of incidence (page)
are called TE (Transverse Electric) and numbered as: TE 0 , TE 1 , TE 2 ,...
Electric field distribution of these modes for 2D slab waveguide can be
expressed as:
Em ( x, y, z, t ) e x f m ( y) cos(ωt m z ) [2-26]
wave transmission along slab waveguides, fibers & other type of optical
waveguides can be fully described by time & z dependency of the mode:
cos(ωt m z ) or e j (wt m z )
TE modes in slab waveguide
Em ( x, y, z, t ) e x f m ( y) cos(ωt m z )
m 0,1,2,3 (mode number)
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
Modes in slab waveguide
• The order of the mode is equal to the # of field zeros across the guide. The
order of the mode is also related to the angle in which the ray congruence
corresponding to this mode makes with the plane of the waveguide (or axis
of the fiber). The steeper the angle, the higher the order of the mode.
• For higher order modes the fields are distributed more toward the edges of
the guide and penetrate further into the cladding region.
• Radiation modes in fibers are not trapped in the core & guided by the fiber
but they are still solutions of the Maxwell’ eqs. with the same boundary
conditions. These infinite continuum of the modes results from the optical
power that is outside the fiber acceptance angle being refracted out of the
core.
• In addition to bound & refracted (radiation) modes, there are leaky modes
in optical fiber. They are partially confined to the core & attenuated by
continuously radiating this power out of the core as they traverse along the
fiber (results from Tunneling effect which is quantum mechanical
phenomenon.) A mode remains guided as long as n2 k n1k
Optical Fibers: Modal Theory (Guided or
Propagating modes) & Ray Optics Theory
n1 n2
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
n1 n2
Step Index Fiber
Modal Theory of Step Index fiber
• General expression of EM-wave in the circular fiber can be written as:
E (r , , z, t ) Am E m (r , , z, t ) AmU m (r , )e j ( ωt m z )
m m
H (r , , z, t ) Am H m (r , , z, t ) AmVm (r , )e j ( ωt m z )
m m
[2-27]
• Each of the characteristic solutions Em (r, , z, t ) & H m (r , , z, t ) is
called mth mode of the optical fiber.
• It is often sufficient to give the E-field of the mode.
U m (r, )e j (ωt m z ) m 1,2,3...
• The modal field distribution, U m (r , ) , and the mode
propagation constant, m are obtained from solving the
Maxwell’s equations subject to the boundary conditions given
by the cross sectional dimensions and the dielectric constants
of the fiber.
m (ωc ) n2 k [2-29]
Skew rays
Each particular guided mode in a fiber can be represented by a group of rays which
Make the same angle with the axis of the fiber.
z
Linearly Polarized (LP) modes in weakly-guided fibers ( n1 n2 1 )
LP0m (HE 1m ), LP1m (TE 0m TM 0m HE 0m )
Fundamental Mode: LP01 (HE 11 )
Two degenerate fundamental modes in Fibers
(Horizontal & Vertical HE 11 Modes)
2a 2a
V n1 n2
2 2
NA [2-30]
a: radius of the core, is the optical free space wavelength,
n1 & n2 are the refractive indices of the core & cladding.
Plots of the propagation constant as a function of normalized
frequency for a few of the lowest-order modes
Single mode Operation
• The cut-off wavelength or frequency for each mode is obtained from:
2n2 w c n2
lm (ω c ) n2 k [2-31]
c c
V 2.405 [2-32]
MFD (Mode Field Diameter): The electric field of the first fundamental
mode can be written as:
r2
E (r ) E 0 exp( 2
); MFD 2W0 [2-33]
W0
Birefringence in single-mode fibers
• Because of asymmetries the refractive indices for the two degenerate modes
(vertical & horizontal polarizations) are different. This difference is referred to as
birefringence, B f :
B f n y nx [2-34]
2
Lp [2-35]
kB f
Multi-Mode Operation
• Total number of modes, M, supported by a multi-mode fiber is
approximately (When V is large) given by:
V2
M [2-36]
2
• Power distribution in the core & the cladding: Another quantity of
interest is the ratio of the mode power in the cladding, Pclad to the total
optical power in the fiber, P, which at the wavelengths (or frequencies) far
from the cut-off is given by:
Pclad 4
[2-37]
P 3 M
Chapter 3
Signal Degradation in
Optical Fibers
Signal Attenuation & Distortion in
Optical Fibers
• What are the loss or signal attenuation mechanism in a fiber?
• Why & to what degree do optical signals get distorted as they
propagate down a fiber?
Z=0 Z= l
p l
P(0) mW P (l ) P (0)e mw
p z
P( z ) P(0)e [3-1]
z=0 Z=l
P(0)[dBm ]
• The essential mechanism is the Rayleigh scattering. Since the black body
radiation classically is proportional to 4 (this is true for wavelength
typically greater than 5 micrometer), the attenuation coefficient due to
Rayleigh scattering is approximately proportional to . This seems to me
4
not precise, where the attenuation of fibers at 1.3 & 1.55 micrometer can be
exactly predicted with Planck’s formula & can not be described with
Rayleigh-Jeans law. Therefore I believe that the more accurate formula for
scattering loss is
1
hc
scat 5 exp( )
k B T
h 6.626 10 34 Js, k B 1.3806 10 23 JK -1 , T : Temperatur e
Absorption & scattering losses in fibers
• Microbending Loss:
microscopic bends of the fiber
axis that can arise when the
fibers are incorporated into
cables. The power is dissipated
through the microbended fiber,
because of the repetitive
coupling of energy between
guided modes & the leaky or
radiation modes in the fiber.
1- Material Dispersion
2- Waveguide Dispersion
3- Polarization-Mode Dispersion
w c
v [3-4]
k1 n1
• 2- Modal wave phase velocity: For a modal wave propagating along z-axis
represented byexp( jωt jz ) , the velocity of constant phase plane is:
ω
vp [3-5]
3- For transmission system operation the most important & useful type of
velocity is the group velocity, V g . This is the actual velocity which the
signal information & energy is traveling down the fiber. It is always less
than the speed of light in the medium. The observable delay experiences by
the optical signal waveform & energy, when traveling a length of l along
the fiber is commonly referred to as group delay.
Group Velocity & Group Delay
• The group velocity is given by:
dω
Vg [3-6]
d
• The group delay is given by:
l d
g l [3-7]
Vg dω
• It is important to note that all above quantities depend both on frequency
& the propagation mode. In order to see the effect of these parameters on
group velocity and delay, the following analysis would be helpful.
Input/Output signals in Fiber Transmission
System
• The optical signal (complex) waveform at the input of fiber of length l is
f(t). The propagation constant of a particular modal wave carrying the
signal is (ω). Let us find the output signal waveform g(t).
w is the optical signal bandwidth.
z-=0 Z=l
w c w
~
f (t )
w
w
f (w )e jwt dw [3-8]
c
w c w
~
g (t )
w
w
f (w )e jwt j (w ) l dw [3-9]
c
If w w c
d 1 d 2
(w ) (w c ) (w w c ) (w w c ) 2 ... [3-10]
dw w w c 2 dw 2
w w c
w c w / 2 w c w / 2 d
j wt j [ ( w c ) (w w c )]l
~ ~ dw
f (w )e
jw t j (w ) l
g (t ) f (w )e dw w w c
dw
w c w / 2 w c w / 2
w c w / 2 d
jw ( t l )
~ dw
e j (w c ) l f (w )e dw
w w c
w c w / 2
j (w c ) l d
e f (t l ) e j (w c )l f (t g )
dw
[3-11]
w w c
d l
g l [3-14]
dw w w c Vg
Intramodal Dispersion
• As we have seen from Input/output signal relationship in optical fiber, the
output is proportional to the delayed version of the input signal, and the
delay is inversely proportional to the group velocity of the wave. Since the
propagation constant, (ω) , is frequency dependent over band width ω
sitting at the center frequency ω c , at each frequency, we have one
propagation constant resulting in a specific delay time. As the output signal
is collectively represented by group velocity & group delay this
phenomenon is called intramodal dispersion or Group Velocity
Dispersion (GVD). This phenomenon arises due to a finite bandwidth
of the optical source, dependency of refractive index on the
wavelength and the modal dependency of the group velocity.
• In the case of optical pulse propagation down the fiber, GVD causes pulse
broadening, leading to Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
Dispersion & ISI
A measure of information
capacity of an optical fiber for
digital transmission is usually
specified by the bandwidth
distance product BW L
in GHz.km.
For multi-mode step index fiber
this quantity is about 20
MHz.km, for graded index fiber
is about 2.5 GHz.km & for single
mode fibers are higher than 10
GHz.km.
g d 1 d 2 d
2c d
[3-15]
L dω c dk
• If the spectral width of the optical source is not too wide, then the delay
d
difference per unit wavelength along the propagation path is approximately g
For spectral components which are apart, symmetrical around center d
wavelength, the total delay difference over a distance L is:
d g L d 2 d
2
2
d 2c d d2
d d L d 2
w w L w [3-16]
dw dw V g dw
2
d 2
• 2 is called GVD parameter, and shows how much a light pulse
dw 2
broadens as it travels along an optical fiber. The more common parameter
is called Dispersion, and can be defined as the delay difference per unit
length per unit wavelength as follows:
1 d g d 1
2c 2
D [3-17]
L d d V g
2
• In the case of optical pulse, if the spectral width of the optical source is
characterized by its rms value of the Gaussian pulse , the pulse
spreading over the length of L, g can be well approximated by:
d g
g DL [3-18]
d
• D has a typical unit of [ps/(nm.km)].
Material Dispersion
Input Cladding
v g ( 1 )
Core Output
Emitter v g ( 2 )
Very short
light pulse
t t
1 o 2 0
d 2 d 2 d 2
mat L L L n ( )
dω 2c d 2c d
L dn
n [3-19]
c d
• The pulse spread due to material dispersion is therefore:
d mat L d 2 n
g 2 L Dmat ( ) [3-20]
d c d
/ k n2
2 2 2
/ k n2
b [3-21]
n1 n2
2 2
n1 n2
• Using V number:
V ka(n1 n2 )1/ 2 kan2 2
2 2 [3-23]
Waveguide Dispersion
• Delay time due to waveguide dispersion can then be expressed as:
L d (Vb)
wg n2 n2
dV
[3-24]
c
d wg n2 L d 2 (Vb)
wg L Dwg ( ) V [3-25]
d c dV 2
Dwg ( )
= Pulse spread
Ex Ey
n1 x // x Ey
t
E
Input light pulse
Suppose that the core refractive index has different values along two orthogonal
directions corresponding to electric field oscillation direction (polarizations). We can
take x and y axes along these directions. An input light will travel along the fiber with Ex
and Ey polarizations having different group velocities and hence arrive at the output at
different times
• The rms value of the differential group delay can be approximated as:
Fact 1) Minimum distortion at wavelength about 1300 nm for single mode silica fiber.
Fact 2) Minimum attenuation is at 1550 nm for sinlge mode silica fiber.
Strategy: shifting the zero-dispersion to longer wavelength for minimum attenuation and dispersion.
V
• Dispersion: [3-30]
d
D ( ) Dmat ( ) Dwg ( ) [3-31]
d
D( ) L [3-32]
dD
S 0 S (0 ) [3-34]
d 0
S0
0 4
D ( ) 1 ( ) [3-35]
4
Dispersion for dispersion shifted fibers (1500
nm- 1600 nm)
S0
( ) 0 ( 0 ) 2 [3-36]
2
Temporal changes in a medium with Kerr nonlinearity and negative GVD. Since dispersion tends to broaden the pulse, Kerr
Nonlinearity tends to squeeze the pulse, resulting in a formation of optical soliton.
Chapter 4
Photonic Sources
Contents
k B 1.38 1023 JK -1
a) Energy level diagrams showing the excitation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
The resultant free electron can freely move under the application of electric field.
b) Equal electron & hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor created by the thermal excitation of
electrons across the band gap
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
n-Type Semiconductor
pn ni
2 [4-2]
A reverse bias widens the depletion region, but allows minority carriers to move freely with the applied field.
Lowering the barrier potential with a forward bias allows majority carriers to diffuse across the junction.
E E E
CB
Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Ec CB
Direct Bandgap Eg Photon CB Ec Er Ec
Ev kcb Phonon
Ev Ev
VB
VB kvb VB
–k k –k k –k k
(a) GaAs (b) Si (c) Si with a recombination center
(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is
therefore a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from
the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect bandgap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of
an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center .
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
1.240
(m) [4-3]
Eg (eV)
n(t ) n0 e t / [4-4]
dn n
R [4-5]
dt
• Bulk recombination rate (R)=Radiative recombination rate +
nonradiative recombination rate
bulk recombinat ion rate ( R 1/τ )
radiative recombinat ion rate ( Rr 1/τ r ) nonradiati ve recombinat ion rate( Rnr 1/τ nr )
With an external supplied current density of J the rate equation for the electron-hole
recombination is:
dn(t ) J n
[4-6]
dt qd
q : charge of the electron; d : thickness of recombinat ion region
In equilibrium condition: dn/dt=0
J
n [4-7]
qd
Internal Quantum Efficiency & Optical Power
Rr nr
int [4-8]
Rr Rnr r nr r
int : internal quantum efficiency in the active region
Optical power generated internally in the active region in the LED is:
I hcI
Pint int h int
q
[4-9]
q
Pint : Internal optical power,
I : Injected current to active region
External Quantum Eficiency
4n1n2
T ( ) : Fresnel Transmissi on Coefficien t T (0) [4-12]
(n1 n2 ) 2
1
If n2 1 ext [4-13]
n1 (n1 1) 2
Pint
LED emitted optical powr, P ext Pint [4-14]
n1 (n1 1) 2
Modulation of LED
• The frequency response of an LED depends on:
1- Doping level in the active region
2- Injected carrier lifetime in the recombination region, .
i
3- Parasitic capacitance of the LED
• If the drive current of an LED is modulated at a frequency of w
the output optical power of the device will vary as:
P0
P (w ) [4-15]
1 (w i ) 2
• Electrical current is directly proportional to the optical power,
thus we can define electrical bandwidth and optical bandwidth,
separately.
p(w) I(w)
Electrical BW 10log 20 log I (0)
[4-16]
p ( 0)
p : electrical power, I : electrical current
P(w ) I (w )
Optical BW 10 log 10 log [4-17]
P ( 0) I ( 0)
(1 R) 2
I trans I inc [4-18]
(1 R) 2 4R sin 2 (kL)
R: reflectance of the optical intensity, k: optical wavenumber
Laser Diode
• Laser diode is an improved LED, in the sense that uses stimulated
emission in semiconductor from optical transitions between distribution
energy states of the valence and conduction bands with optical
resonator structure such as Fabry-Perot resonator with both optical
and carrier confinements.
R1 n1 R2
Z=0 n2 Z=L
exp( j 2 L) 1
Threshold gain & current density
1 1
gth ln [4-23]
2 L R1R2
For laser structure with strong carrier confinement, the threshold current
Density for stimulated emission can be well approximated by:
gth J th [4-24]
dn J n
Cn
dt qd sp
electron rate injection spontaneous recombination stimulated emission
1
from eq. [4 - 25] Cn / ph 0 n nth [4-26]
C ph
qd sp sp
Laser operation beyond the threshold
J J th
• The solution of the rate equations [4-25] gives the steady state
photon density, resulting from stimulated emission and
spontaneous emission as follows:
ph
s ( J J th ) ph Rsp [4-28]
qd
External quantum efficiency
i ( g th )
ext
g th
q dP dP (mW )
0.8065[ m] [4-29]
E g dI dI (mA )
2n
• Assuming the resonant frequency of the mth
mode is:
mc
m m 1,2,3,... [4-30]
2 Ln
c 2
m m1 [4-31]
2 Ln 2 Ln
Spectrum from a laser Diode
( 0 )
g ( ) g (0) exp : spectral width [4-32]
2
2
Laser Diode Structure & Radiation Pattern
2ne
B [4-33]
k
Frequency-Selective laser Diodes:
Distributed Feedback Reflector (DBR) laser
B 2
1
B (m )
2ne Le 2
[4-35]
Output spectrum symmetrically distributed around Bragg wavelength in an idealized DFB laser diode
Frequency-Selective laser Diodes:
Distributed Reflector (DR) laser
Modulation of Laser Diodes
• Internal Modulation: Simple but suffers from non-linear effects.
• External Modulation: for rates greater than 2 Gb/s, more
complex, higher performance.
• Most fundamental limit for the modulation rate is set by the
photon life time in the laser cavity:
1 c 1 1 c
ln g th
ph
[4-36]
n 2L R1 R2 n
• Another fundamental limit on modulation frequency is the
relaxation oscillation frequency given by:
1/ 2
1 1 I
f 1 [4-37]
2 sp ph I th
Relaxation oscillation peak
Pulse Modulated laser
• In a pulse modulated laser, if the laser is completely turned off
after each pulse, after onset of the current pulse, a time
t d delay,
given by:
Ip
t d ln [4-38]
I p ( I B I th )
x(t ) A cos wt
y (t ) A0 A1 cos wt A2 cos 2wt ...
An
20 log
A1
Intermodulation Distortion
nw1 , mw 2
Harmonics:
Intermodulated Terms:
Photonic Sources
Contents
k B 1.38 1023 JK -1
a) Energy level diagrams showing the excitation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
The resultant free electron can freely move under the application of electric field.
b) Equal electron & hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor created by the thermal excitation of
electrons across the band gap
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
n-Type Semiconductor
pn ni
2 [4-2]
A reverse bias widens the depletion region, but allows minority carriers to move freely with the applied field.
Lowering the barrier potential with a forward bias allows majority carriers to diffuse across the junction.
E E E
CB
Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Ec CB
Direct Bandgap Eg Photon CB Ec Er Ec
Ev kcb Phonon
Ev Ev
VB
VB kvb VB
–k k –k k –k k
(a) GaAs (b) Si (c) Si with a recombination center
(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is
therefore a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from
the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect bandgap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of
an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center .
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
1.240
(m) [4-3]
Eg (eV)
n(t ) n0 e t / [4-4]
dn n
R [4-5]
dt
• Bulk recombination rate (R)=Radiative recombination rate +
nonradiative recombination rate
bulk recombinat ion rate ( R 1/τ )
radiative recombinat ion rate ( Rr 1/τ r ) nonradiati ve recombinat ion rate( Rnr 1/τ nr )
With an external supplied current density of J the rate equation for the electron-hole
recombination is:
dn(t ) J n
[4-6]
dt qd
q : charge of the electron; d : thickness of recombinat ion region
In equilibrium condition: dn/dt=0
J
n [4-7]
qd
Internal Quantum Efficiency & Optical Power
Rr nr
int [4-8]
Rr Rnr r nr r
int : internal quantum efficiency in the active region
Optical power generated internally in the active region in the LED is:
I hcI
Pint int h int
q
[4-9]
q
Pint : Internal optical power,
I : Injected current to active region
External Quantum Eficiency
4n1n2
T ( ) : Fresnel Transmissi on Coefficien t T (0) [4-12]
(n1 n2 ) 2
1
If n2 1 ext [4-13]
n1 (n1 1) 2
Pint
LED emitted optical powr, P ext Pint [4-14]
n1 (n1 1) 2
Modulation of LED
• The frequency response of an LED depends on:
1- Doping level in the active region
2- Injected carrier lifetime in the recombination region, .
i
3- Parasitic capacitance of the LED
• If the drive current of an LED is modulated at a frequency of w
the output optical power of the device will vary as:
P0
P (w ) [4-15]
1 (w i ) 2
• Electrical current is directly proportional to the optical power,
thus we can define electrical bandwidth and optical bandwidth,
separately.
p(w) I(w)
Electrical BW 10log 20 log I (0)
[4-16]
p ( 0)
p : electrical power, I : electrical current
P(w ) I (w )
Optical BW 10 log 10 log [4-17]
P ( 0) I ( 0)
Laser-Fiber Connection
Content
Ps PF
Source Optical Fiber
Radiance (Brightness) of the source
1 sin cos
2 2
[5-3]
0 0
rs 2 2
B0 NA d rdr
s
0 0
PLED,step rs B0 ( NA) 2 rs B0 n1
2 2 2 2 2 2
[5-5]
Power coupling from LED to step-index fiber
2 / 2
Ps As
0 0
B( , ) sin dd
/2
Ps rs 2B0
2 2 2
cos sin d rs B0 [5-6]
0
Ps ( NA) 2 if rs a
PLED,step a 2 [5-7]
s P ( NA) 2
if rs a
rs
Equilibrium Numerical Aperture
Examples of possible lensing schemes used to improve optical source-to-fiber coupling
efficiency
Laser diode to Fiber Coupling
Fiber-to-Fiber Joint
1/ 2
d d
2
Acomm 2 d
F ,step arccos 1 [5-9]
a 2
2a a 2a
Longitudinal offset effect
Fusion Splicing
V-groove optical fiber splicing
Optical Fiber Connectors
• Some of the principal requirements of a good connector design are as
follows:
1- low coupling losses
2- Interchangeability
3- Ease of assembly
4- Low environmental sensitivity
5- Low-cost and reliable construction
6- Ease of connection
Connector Return Loss
Chapter 6
Photodetectors
Content
• Physical Principles of Photodiodes
• pin, APD
• Photodetectors characteristics (Quantum efficiency,
Responsivity, S/N)
• Noise in Photodetector Circuits
• Photodiode Response Time
• Photodiodes structures
pin Photodetector
The high electric field present in the depletion region causes photo-generated carriers to
Separate and be collected across the reverse –biased junction. This give rise to a current
Flow in an external circuit, known as photocurrent.
Energy-Band diagram for a pin photodiode
Photocurrent
• Optical power absorbed,P (x )in the depletion region can be written in terms
of incident optical power, P0 :
s ( ) x
P( x) P0 (1 e ) [6-1]
(1 R f ) P(w) P0 (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f )
Optical Absorption Coefficient
Responsivity
• The primary photocurrent resulting from absorption is:
q
Ip P0 (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f ) [6-3]
h
• Quantum Efficiency:
P0 h
Responsivity vs. wavelength
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
APDs internally multiply the
primary photocurrent before it
enters to following circuitry.
In order to carrier multiplication
take place, the photogenerated
carriers must traverse along a
high field region. In this region,
photogenerated electrons and
holes gain enough energy to
ionize bound electrons in VB
upon colliding with them. This
multiplication is known as Optical radiation
impact ionization. The newly
created carriers in the presence of Reach-Through APD structure (RAPD)
high electric field result in more showing the electric fields in depletion
ionization called avalanche region and multiplication region.
effect.
Responsivity of APD
• The multiplication factor (current gain) M for all carriers generated in the
photodiode is defined as:
IM
M [6-6]
Ip
• Where I M is the average value of the total multiplied output current & I P
is the primary photocurrent.
q
AP D M 0 M [6-7]
h
Current gain (M) vs. Voltage for different optical
wavelengths
Photodetector Noise & S/N
ip M s
2 2 2 2 [6-9]
is
m 2 I P2
p
2 2
ip for sinusoidal signal [6-10]
2
Noise Sources in Photodetecors
• The principal noises associated with photodetectors are :
1- Quantum (Shot) noise: arises from statistical nature of the production
and collection of photo-generated electrons upon optical illumination. It has
been shown that the statistics follow a Poisson process.
2- Dark current noise: is the current that continues to flow through the
bias circuit in the absence of the light. This is the combination of bulk
dark current, which is due to thermally generated e and h in the pn
junction, and the surface dark current, due to surface defects, bias voltage
and surface area.
• In order to calculate the total noise presented in photodetector, we should
sum up the root mean square of each noise current by assuming that those
are uncorrelated.
Q 2qI P BM F (M )
2 2 2
iQ [6-11]
DB 2qI D BM 2 F ( M )
2 2
i DB [6-12]
DS 2qI L B
2 2
i DS [6-13]
Noise calculation (2)
• The total rms photodetector noise current is:
N iQ i DB i DS
2 2 2 2 2
iN
2q( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B [6-14]
4k BTB
T
2 2
iT [6-15]
RL
• Having obtained the signal and total noise, the signal-to-noise-ratio can be
written as:
2
S iP M 2
[6-16]
N 2q( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B 4k BTB / RL
• Since the noise figure F(M) increases with M, there always exists an
optimum value of M that maximizes the S/N. For sinusoidally modulated
signal with m=1 and F ( M ) M x :
x2 2qI L 4k BT / RL
[6-17]
M
xq( I P I D )
opt
Photodetector Response Time
• The response time of a photodetector with its output circuit depends mainly
on the following three factors:
1- The transit time of the photocarriers in the depletion region. The transit
time t ddepends on the carrier drift velocity v d and the depletion layer
width w, and is given by:
w
td [6-18]
vd
2- Diffusion time of photocarriers outside depletion region.
3- RC time constant of the circuit. The circuit after the photodetector acts
like RC low pass filter with a passband given by:
1
B [6-19]
2RT CT
RT Rs || RL and CT Ca Cd
Photodiode response to optical pulse
light
InP substrate
InP buffer layer
INGaAs Absorption layer
Metal contact
Photonic Transmission
Systems (Digital & Analog)
Content
• The design of optical receiver is much more complicated than that of optical transmitter
because the receiver must first detect weak, distorted signals and the n make decisions
on what type of data was sent.
Error Sources in DTS
N
h 0
P (t ) dt
h
E [7-1]
e N
Pr (n) Nn
[7-2]
n!
N is the average number of electron-hole pairs in photodetector,
is the detector quantum efficiency and E is energy received in a time
interval and h is photon energy, where Pr (n) is the probability
that n electrons are emitted in an interval .
InterSymbol Interference (ISI)
The binary digital pulse train incident on the photodetector can be written in the
following form:
P(t ) b h
n
n p (t nTb ) [7-3]
h
p (t )dt 1
the mean output current from the photodiode at time t resulting from pulse
train given in eq. [7-3] is (neglecting the DC components arising from dark
current noise):
q
i (t ) MP (t ) o M bn h p (t nTb ) [7-4]
h n
Bit Error Rate (BER)
[7-6]
P0 (v) p( y | 0)dy probablity that the equalizer output vol tage exceeds v, if 0 transmitt ed
v
Pe q1 P1 (vth ) q 0 P0 (vth )
vth [7-7]
q1 p( y | 1)dy q p( y | 1)dy
0
vth
• Where q1 and q0 are the probabilities that the transmitter sends 0 and 1
respectively. q 1 q
0 1
mean
mean
• If we assume that the probabilities of 0 and 1 pulses are equally likely, then
using eq [7-7] and [7-8] , BER becomes:
1 1 Q
BER Pe (Q ) exp( x )dx 1 erf (
2
)
Q/ 2 2 2
1 exp(- Q 2 /2)
[7-9]
2 Q
off on
x
2
erf ( x) 2
exp( y )dy [7-10]
0
Approximation of error function
Variation of BER vs Q,
according to eq [7-9].
Special Case
In special case when:
Eq [7-8] becomes:
1 V
Pe ( ) 1 erf ( )
2 2 2
V [7-11]
is peak signal - to - rms - noise ratio.
S i s2 (1 / 2)( 0 MmPr ) 2
2
N iN 2q ( 0 Pr I D ) M 2 F ( M ) B ( 4k B TB / Req ) Ft
2 [7-14]
(1 / 2)( MmI P )
2q ( I P I D ) M 2 F ( M ) B ( 4k B TB / Req ) Ft
(1 / 2)m 2 0 Pr
2 2
S (1 / 2)( I P m) 2
Low input signal level [7-15]
S m 2
0 Pr
Large signal level [7-16]
N 4qB
SNR vs. optical power for photodiodes
Photonic Digital Link Analysis & Design
9
The Si PIN & APD and InGaAsP PIN plots for BER= 10 . The InGaAs APD plot is for
BER= 10 .11
Link Loss Budget [Example 8.1]
Link Power Budget Table [Example 8.2]
• Example: [SONET Component/loss Output/sensitivity Power margin
OC-48 (2.5 Gb/s) parameter /loss (dB)
link] Laser output 3 dBm
Transmitter: 3dBm
APD Sensitivity -32 dBm
@ 1550 nm;
@ 2.5 Gb/s
Receiver: InGaAs
APD with -32 dBm Allowed loss 3-(-32) dBm 35
sensitivity @ 2.5 Source connector 1 dB 34
Gb/s; loss
Fiber: 60 km long Jumper+Connect 3+1 dB 30
with o.3 dB/km or loss
attenuation; jumper Cable attenuation 18 dB 12
cable loss 3 dB each,
connector loss of 1 Jumper+Connect 3+1 dB 8
dB each. or loss
Receiver 1 dB 7(final margin)
Connector loss
Dispersion Analysis (Rise-Time Budget)
t sys [ttx t mod tGVD t rx ]
2 2 2 2 1/ 2
2 1/ 2
2 440 Lq 350
2
ttx D L
2 2 2
B0 Brx
Brx [ MHz ]:3dB Electrical BW L[ km ]:Length of the fiber B0 [ MHz ]:BW of the 1 km of the fiber;
Photonic Networks
Contents
• Basic Networks
• SONET/SDH Standards
• Broadcast & Select WDM Networks
• Wavelength-Routed Networks
Basic Networks
• Stations or Data Equipment Terminal (DAT)
• Networks
- Local Area Networks (LAN)
- Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
- Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Node
• Topology
- Linear Bus
- Ring
- Star
• Switching
• Routing
• Protocol
• Router
3 Network Topologies
Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Star Topology
Passive Linear Bus Topology
Add/Drop Multiplexer
WDM Network
Bus
Star