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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Basic Elements
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits
over a communication channel. The design issues have to
do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
Coaxial cable:
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency
ranges than those in twisted-pair cable
Coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
braid, or a combination of the two
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield
against noise and as the second conductor, which completes
the circuit
This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating
sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover13
Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
Coaxial cable:
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
Coaxial cable:
Uses of coaxial cable:
o wireless and cable access technologies
o to attach antennas to wireless devices (coaxial cable
carries radio frequency (RF) energy between the
antennas and the radio equipment)
o Traditional cable Television
o In the past, coax cable was used in Ethernet
installations. Today UTP offers lower costs and higher
bandwidth than coaxial and has replaced it as the
standard for all Ethernet installations
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
Fiber optics:
Fiber-optic cabling uses either glass or plastic fibers to
guide light impulses from source to destination
The bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses
It is based on the principle of Total internal Reflection
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
Fiber optics:
Implementation issues include:
o More expensive (usually) than copper media over the
same distance (but for a higher capacity)
o Different skills and equipment required to terminate and
splice the cable infrastructure
o More careful handling than copper media
Propagation modes:
Current technology supports two modes:
o multimode
o single mode 17
Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
Fiber optics:
Examples of advantages over metallic cable (twisted- pair or
coaxial):
o Higher bandwidth: can support higher data rates
o Less signal attenuation: transmission distance is
significantly greater than that of other guided media. For
example, a signal can run for 50 km without requiring
regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or
twisted-pair cable
o Immunity to electromagnetic interference
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Guided Media
Fiber optics:
Examples of desadvantages:
o Installation and maintenance
o Unidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light
is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional
communication, two fibers are needed
o Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more
expensive than those of other guided media.
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Wireless Media
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Unguided Media
Radio waves:
o refer to electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies
between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
o Based on behavior of the waves, rather than the
frequencies, radio waves, for the most part, are
omnidirectional
o When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions
Applications:
o AM and FM radio, television, and maritime
communications are examples of multicasting
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Unguided Media
Microwaves:
o Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1
and 300 GHz
o Microwaves are unidirectional. Use unidirectional
antenna
o Microwave propagation is line-of-sight
Repeaters are often needed for long- distance
communication
Applications
o used in cellular phones, satellite networks, and
wireless LANs
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission Medium: Unguided Media
Infrared:
o frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths
from 1 mm to 770 nm)
o used for short-range communication, ex: remote
control
Applications
o used for communication between devices such as
keyboards, PCs, and printers
o For example, wireless keyboard to communicate with a
PC (personal computer)
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Examples of equipments:
Hub:
o used to connect network stations to form LANs
o10BaseT Ethernet networks:10 Mbps for Ethernet
• How hub works?:
o The hub receives signals from each station and repeats
the signals to all other stations connected to the hub
o In active hubs (which all of today’s hubs are), the
signal received from one port is regenerated (amplified)
and retransmitted to the other ports on the hub
o Since hubs perform the function of a repeater, they are
also called multiport repeaters.
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Examples of equipments:
Repeater:
o a network by boosting the signal so that it can travel
farther along the cabling
• How repeater works?:
o Digital signals traveling on cables weaken with
distance (a phenomenon known as attenuation)
o A repeater is a form of digital amplifier that
regenerates (amplifies) the signal so that it can travel
farther
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Examples of equipments:
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Data and signals:
Digital signal carrying analog & digital Data
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission impairements:
Signal received may differ from signal transmitted
Analog signal: degradation of signal quality
Digital signal: bit errors
Caused by:
attenuation and attenuation distortion
delay distortion
noise: additional signals inserted between transmitter and
receiver: impulse noise, crosstalk, thermal (white) noise or
noise
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Transmission impairements:
Attenuation: Signal strength falls off with distance
In normal, received signal strength: must be enough to
be detected and must be sufficiently higher than noise to
be received without error
Attenuation distortion: attenuation is different for different
frequencies; an increasing function of frequency
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Interconnection of nodes/devices
End-system
interaction
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Access networks:
physically connects an
end system
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Home access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
• Digital subscriber line (DSL): each customer’s DSL modem
uses the existing telephone line to exchange data with a digital
subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) located in the local
central office (CO) of a telecom company.
• DSL standards define transmission rates of 24 Mbps
downstream and 2.5 Mbps upstream [ITU 2003].
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Home access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
• Hybrid fiber-coaxial access network: fiber optics connect
the cable head end to neighborhood-level junctions to reach
individual houses and apartments through coaxial cable. Each
neighborhood junction typically supports 500 to 5,000 homes.
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Wireless LAN
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Wireless LAN
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Cellular networks
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Cellular network:
GSM network architecture
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Cellular network:
GSM elements and interfaces
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
Satellite network
Functional relationships of user terminal, terrestrial network and
satellite network
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Lecture # 4: Access networks
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Lecture # 4: Switching techniques
Switching Techniques:
Circuit Switching
– Dedicated resources and fixed path
– used in traditional telephone networks
Packet Switching
– Shared resources
– used in modern data network
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Lecture # 4: Switching techniques
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Lecture # 4: Switching techniques
Circuit Switching:
Advantages:
– Fixed delays
– Guaranteed continuous delivery
Disadvantages:
– Circuits are not used when session is idle
– Inefficient for bursty traffic
– Circuit switching usually done using a fixed rate stream
(e.g.,
64 Kbps)
–Difficult to support variable data rates
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Lecture # 4: Switching techniques
Packet switching:
i) message segmentation:
• longer message is broken up into series of packets
• packets contain user’s data + control data
• control data (header) contains information that
network requires to route the packet
ii) data transfer
• intermediate nodes perform following operations:
(a) receive entire packet
(b) determine next node and link on route
(c) queue packet to go out on that link when link is
available, packet is transmitted to next node 56
Lecture # 4: Switching techniques
Packet switching:
Advantages:
• greater line efficiency: node-to-node link dynamically shared by many
packets / connections
• data rate conversion: two stations of different data rates can exchange
packets, because each connects to its node at its proper data rate ⇒ nodes
act as buffers
• no blocked calls – packets are accepted even under heavy traffic, but
delivery delay increases
Disadvantages:
• transmission delay: each time a packet passes through a packet-switching
node, it incurs a delay not present in circuit switching = the time it takes
to absorb the packet into an internal buffer
• variable delay: each node introduces additional variable delay due to
processing and queueing
• Overhead: to route packets through a packet-switching network, overhead
information including the address of destination and/or sequence
information must be added to each packet 57
Lecture # 4: Network performance
ITU quality of service (QoS):
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Data rate limits:
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate:
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit
rate can be calculated as
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Data rate limits:
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
bps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either increase
the bandwidth of the line or improve the SNR.
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Bandwidth
• Bandwidth can be used in two different contexts with two
different measuring values:
Bandwidth in Hertz: is the range of frequencies
contained in a composite signal or the range of frequencies
a channel can pass.
Throughput
• Measures of how fast we can actually send data through
a network. For example, a link may have a bandwidth of B
bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T
always less than B.
• In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement
of a link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how
fast we can send data.
• For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1
Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of the link may
handle only 200 kbps.
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Lecture # 4: Physical Layer
Throughput
• Example
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput
of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Latency (Delay)
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Latency (Delay)
•Types of delay
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Latency (Delay)
Latency (Delay)
Propagation Time:
Example: What is the propagation time if the distance between
the two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to
be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Latency (Delay)
Tranmission time
The time required for transmission of a message depends on the
size of the message and the bandwidth of the channel.
Transmission time =Message size/Bandwidth
Latency (Delay)
Tranmission time
Example: What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108
m/s.
Solution
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Latency (Delay)
Queuing Time
•The time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold
the message before it can be processed.
• The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load
imposed on the network.
• When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time
increases.
• An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived
messages and processes them one by one. If there are many
messages, each message will have to wait
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Lecture # 4: Network performance
Latency (Delay)
Processing delay