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1.2 m
110 kN
1.8 m
• The traffic lane is the number of lanes of traffic that the traffic
engineer plans to route across the bridge. A lane width is
associated with a traffic lane and is typically 3600mm.
2 1.00
3 0.85
Components IM(%)
Deck joints –All limit state 75
Type CD
Where
ηD = the ductility factor
ηR= is the redundancy factor
ηI= is the operational important factors
• Ductility factor ηD: Ductility enables overloaded
portions of the structure redistribute the load to
other portions that have reserve strength. This
redistribution is dependent on the ability of the
overloaded component and its connection to
develop inelastic deformations without failure.
For Strength limit state:
ηD=1.05 for non ductile component and connections
ηD=0.95 for ductile components and connections
For other limit states: ηD=1.0
Redundancy factor ηR: redundancy
significantly affects the safety margin of the bridge
structure. A statically indeterminate structure is
redundant. Example, in a three span bridge, any
combination of two supports, or two moments, or
one support or one moment could lost without
intermediate collapse., because the applied load
could find alternative load paths to the ground.
For the Strength limit state
ηR=1.05 for nonredundant members
ηR=0.95 for redundant memebrs
For other limit states: ηR=1.0
Operational Importance Factor ηI Bridges can
be considered of operational importance if they are on
the shortest path between residential areas and a
hospital or schools, provide access for police, fire, and
rescue vehicles to homes, business, and industrial
plants. One example of a non important bridge could
be on a secondary road leading to a remote
recreational area that is open year round.
For Strength limit state
ηI≥1.05 for important bridge
ηI≥0.95 for a nonimportant bridge
For other limit states: ηI=1.0
Components and connections of a bridge shall
satisfy the above Equation for the applicable
combinations of factored extreme force effects
as specified at each of the limit states presented
below.
Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of
the bridge without wind.
STRENGTH I
The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the
bridge unless so assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes
should be assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load as specified
herein. For bridges longer than the permit vehicle, the presence of the
design lane load, preceding and following the permit load in its lane,
should be considered.
STRENGTH III Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind
velocity exceeding 90 km/h.
Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore,
high winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the
bridge.
Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect
ratios.
STRENGTH IV
The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of trying out various
combinations of load and resistance factors on a number of bridges and their components.
Combinations that yield a safety index close to the target value of = 3.5 are retained for
potential application. From these are selected constant load factors and corresponding
resistance factors for each type of structural component reflecting its use.
This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of bridges with spans not
exceeding 60 m. For the primary components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and live
load force effects is rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors different
from those found acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. It is believed to be
more practical to investigate one additional load case than to require the use of two sets of
resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength Load Combination I,
depending on other permanent loads present. For bridges with up to 180 m spans, Load
Combination IV will govern where the dead load to live load force effect ratio exceeds 7.0.
Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge
EXTREME EVENT I STRENGTH V
This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major flood
and an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small. Therefore,
consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on mean discharges
shall be warranted. Live load coincident with an earthquake is discussed
elsewhere in this chapter.
Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the
bridge with a 90 km/h (25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their
nominal values. Also related to deflection control in buried
metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and
SERVICE I
Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
SERVICE II
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures
(as in Ref 25), and it is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view
of load level, this combination is approximately halfway between that used for
Service I and Strength I Limit States.
Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed
SERVICE III
vehicular live load and dynamic responses under a single design truck
having a constant axle spacing of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found
to be representative of the truck population with respect to a large number
of return cycles of stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements,
components, and connections.
• The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored
force effect. For each load combination, both positive and negative
extremes shall be investigated.
• The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform
Temperature (TU), Creep (CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used
for deformations and the smaller values for all other effects.
• In the application of permanent loads, force
effects for each of the specified six load types
should be computed separately.
• In cases where the traffic lanes are less than 3.0 m wide, the
number of design lanes shall be equal to the number of traffic
lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be taken as the
width of the traffic lane.
• The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load are superimposed
in order to obtain extreme values.
• Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the
larger of the following:
The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane
load, or
The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in the
subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load above, combined with the effect
of the design lane load, and
For both negative moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform
load on all spans, and reaction at interior piers only, 90% of the effect of
two design trucks spaced a minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one
truck and the rear axle of the other truck, combined with 90% of the effect
of the design lane load. The distance between the 145 kN axles of each truck
shall be taken as 4.3 m.
Analysis Methods
APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS
• Secondary strip designed in a manner like the primary strip, with all the limit
states applicable;
• Resistance requirements in the secondary direction determined as a percent of that
in the primary one as specified in the traditional approach for reinforced
concrete slabs (as in Ref. 1); or
• Minimum structural and/or geometry requirements specified for the secondary
direction independent of actual force effects, as is the case for most wood
decks.
• The approximate strip model for decks is based on rectangular layouts. While skew
generally tends to decrease extreme force effects, it produces negative moments at
corners, torsional moments in the end zones, substantial redistribution of reaction
forces, and a number of other structural phenomena that should be considered in the
design.
APPLICABILITY
• For slab bridges and concrete slabs spanning more than 4.6 m and with span
primarily in the direction parallel to traffic, the provisions of section 13.5: Equivalent
Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges, shall apply.
WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT INTERIOR STRIPS
• To get the load per unit width of the equivalent strip, divide the total
load on one design traffic lane by the calculated strip width.
DIRECTION OF PRIMARY WIDTH OF PRIMARY
TYPE OF DECK STRIP RELATIVE TO STRIP (mm)
TRAFFIC
Concrete:
Overhang 1140 + 0.833X
Cast-in-place Either Parallel or Perpendicular +M: 660 + 0.55S
-M: 1220 + 0.25S
Wood:
Spike-laminated
Continuous decks or Parallel 2.0h + 760
interconnected panels Perpendicular 4.0h + 1020
Non-interconnected 2.0h + 760
panels Parallel 2.0h +1020
Perpendicular
Planks Plank Width
• For the purpose of this chapter, each web of a steel or concrete box beam
shall be treated as a separate supporting component.
• For short-spans, the force effects calculated using the footprint could be
significantly lower, and more realistic, than force effects calculated using
concentrated loads.
• Past practice has been not to check shear in typical decks. A design section
for shear is provided for use in nontraditional situations. It is not the intent
to investigate shear in every deck.
CROSS-SECTIONAL FRAME ACTION
Moments in Nmm/mm of grid due to live load in filled and partially filled grids shall be
determined as:
• The moment equations have been derived from orthotropic plate theory
and stiffness ratios obtained in full-scale laboratory tests of filled and
partially filled grids based on a 500 mm wide, 200 mm long tire contact
area. Moments resulting from these equations compare well with full-
scale test results and finite difference and finite element solutions. The
tire contact area, specified in section 3.8 Gravity Loads: Tire Contact
Area, factored for the Strength I Load Combination, is a 510 mm by 385
mm rectangle, therefore Equations 13.2 and 13.3 are expected to
produce conservative results.
• For on-the-road tire loads greater than those
indicated by the design truck, the factored tire
pressure should not be taken to be greater than 0.86
MPa, unless supported by condition-specific data,
which includes the tire contact area.
INELASTIC ANALYSIS
• The lever rule involves summing moments about one support to find the
reaction at another support by assuming that the supported component is
hinged at interior supports.
• When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model
should be taken as shown in Figure 13-1. Moments should be taken about
the assumed, or notional, hinge in the deck over the middle girder to find
the reaction on the exterior girder.
Figure 13-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges
• The provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Load: Multiple
Presence of Live Load specify that multiple presence factors
shall not be used with the approximate load assignment
methods other than statical moment or lever arm methods
because these factors are already incorporated in the
distribution factors.
Where moderate deviations from a constant deck width or parallel beams exist, the equations
in the tables of distribution factors shall be used in conjunction with a suitable value for beam
spacing.
Additional requirements for multiple steel box girders with concrete decks shall be as specified
in section “Interior Beams with Concrete Decks,” below.
Where bridges meet the conditions specified herein, permanent loads of and on the deck shall
be distributed uniformly among the beams and/or stringers.
Live load distribution factors, specified herein, shall be used for permit and rating vehicles
whose overall width is comparable to the width of the design truck.
• Unless otherwise stated, the stiffness parameters for area, moments of
inertia and torsional stiffness used herein and indicated in the following
text shall be taken as those of the cross-section to which traffic will be
applied, i.e., usually the composite section.
where:
EB=modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa)
ED=modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa)
I=moment of inertia of beam (mm4)
eg=distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm)
A = Area of concrete (mm2)
The parameters A and I in Equation 13.4 shall be taken as those of the non-
composite beam.
The bridge types indicated in Tables 13-3 through 13-9, with reference to
Figure 13-1, shall be taken as representative of the type of bridge to which each
approximate equation applies.
Except as permitted by Chapter 2: General Requirements, regardless of the
method of analysis used, i.e., approximate or refined, exterior girders of multi-
beam bridges shall not have less resistance than an interior beam.
• Most of the equations for distribution factors were derived for constant
deck width and parallel beams. Past designs with moderate exceptions to
these two assumptions have performed well when the "S/D" distribution
factors were used. While the distribution factors specified herein are more
representative of actual bridge behavior, common sense indicates that some
exceptions are still possible, especially if the parameter "S" is chosen with
prudent judgment.
• In lieu of more refined information, the St. Venant torsional inertia, J, shall
be determined as:
• For thin-walled open beam:
For stocky open sections, e.g., prestressed I-beams, etc., and solid sections:
J A4 / 40 Ip (13.6)
For closed thin-walled shapes:
where:
b =width of plate element (mm)
t=thickness of plate-like element (mm)
A=area of cross-section (mm2)
Ip=polar moment of inertia (mm4)
Ao=area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm2)
s=length of a side element (mm)
• In some cases, the lower limit of deck slab thickness, ts shown in the range
of applicability column in Tables 13-3 through 13-9 is less than 180 mm.
The research used to develop the equation in those tables reflects the range
of slab thickness shown.
• Table 13-2 below describes how the term L
(length) shall be determined for use in the live
load distribution factor equations given below.
Table 13-2 “L” for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations
INTERIOR BEAMS WITH CONCRETE DECKS
• The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks shall be determined
by applying the lane fraction specified in Table 13-3. Applicable cross-sections are depicted
in Figure 13-2.
• For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L ts3) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0.
• For concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution, and
If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a refined
analysis shall be used.
• For multiple steel box girders with a concrete deck, the live load flexural moment shall be
determined using the distribution factor specified in Table 13-3.
• When the spacing of the box girders varies along the length of the bridge, the value of NL
shall be determined, as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Number of Lanes, using
the width, W, taken at midspan.
• The results of analytical and model studies of simple span multiple box section bridges
(Ref. 3) showed that folded plate theory could be used to analyze the behavior of bridges of
this
Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures
• Multiple presence factors, specified in Table 3-4, are
not applied because the multiple factors in past
editions of the Standard Specifications were
considered in the development of the equation in
Table 13-3 for multiple steel box girders.
g = e ginterior
-300 de 1700
e = 0.77 + de
2800
Concrete Deck, filled Lever Rule
Grid, or Partially a, e, k and
Filled Grid on Steel also i, j if
Use lesser of the values
or Concrete Beams: sufficiently obtained from the Nb = 3
Concrete T-Beams. T connected to act equation above with Nb
and Double T as a unit = 3 or the lever rule
Sections
• The distance, de, shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is
inboard of the interior face of the traffic railing and negative if it is
outboard of the curb or traffic barrier.
SKEWED BRIDGES
• When the line supports are skewed and the difference between skew angles
of two adjacent lines of supports does not exceed 10, the bending moment
in the beams shall be reduced in accordance with Table 13-5.
•
Applicable
Cross-section Any Number of Design Range of
Type of Superstructure
from Figure Lanes Loaded Applicability
13-2
Concrete Deck, Filled 1 – c1 (tan )1.5
Grid, or Partially Filled 30o 60o
Grid on Steel or Concrete a, e and k c1 = 0.25 kg 0.25 S 0.5 1100 S 4900
Beams, Concrete T- Lt3s L 6000 L 73 000
Beams, T or Double T If < 30o then c1 = 0.0 Nb 4
Sections If > 60o use = 60o
• The equal treatment of all beams in a multi-beam bridge is conservative regarding positive
reaction and shear. However, it, is not necessarily conservative regarding uplift in the case
of large skew and short exterior spans of continuous beams. A supplementary investigation
of uplift should be considered using the correction factor from Table 13-9, i.e., the terms
other than 1.0, taken as negative for the exterior beam at the acute corner.
• In Equation 13.8, the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple
presence effect.
• This chapter shall be applied to the types of cross-sections shown schematically in Figure
13-2 and culverts under less than 600 mm of fill. For the purpose of this chapter, cast-in-
place voided slab bridges shall be considered as slab bridges.
• The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with
one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
• The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment
with more than one lane loaded shall be determined as:
where:
• Equations for the compressive resistance of columns and moment magnification factors for
beam-columns include a factor, K, which is used to modify the length according to the
restraint at the ends of the column against rotation and translation.
GENERAL
• The resistance of members in shear or in shear combined with torsion shall be determined
by satisfying the conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains and by using
experimentally verified stress-strain relationships for reinforcement and for diagonally
cracked concrete.
DETERMINATION OF AND
Simplified Procedure for Non-Prestressed Sections
• For non-prestressed concrete sections not subjected to axial tension and containing at least
the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement specified or having an overall depth of
< 400 mm, the following values shall be used:
= 2.0
= 45o
• With taken as 2.0 and as 45o, the expressions for shear strength become essentially
identical to those traditionally used for evaluating shear resistance. Recent large-scale
experiments (Ref. 4), however, have demonstrated that these traditional expressions can be
seriously unconservative for large members not containing transverse reinforcement.
GENERAL PROCEDURE
• For sections containing transverse reinforcement, the values of and shall be as specified
in Figure 13-3 and Table 13-10, and for sections not containing transverse reinforcement
these values shall be as specified in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11.
(13.12)
• The strain in the reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member shall be determined as:
(13.13)
• If the value of x, calculated from Equation 13.13, is negative, it shall be multiplied by the factor, F taken as:
(13.14)
• The flexural tension side of the member should be taken as the half-
depth containing the flexural tension zone, as illustrated in Figure
13-5.
• The crack spacing parameter sx, used in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11,
shall be taken as the lesser of either dv or the maximum distance
between layers of longitudinal crack control reinforcement. The
area of the reinforcement in each layer shall be 0.003 bv sx.
• In the general procedure, and are found from Figure 13-3 and
Table 13-10 or Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11. In these figures and
tables, and are given as functions of the strain x the shear stress
V and the crack spacing parameter sx.
Figure13-3 Values of and for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement
Figure 13-4 Values of and for Sections without
Transverse Reinforcement
Table 13-10 Values of and for Sections with
Transverse Reinforcement
v x *1000
fc -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 0 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2
<=0.05 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 28.5 29.0 33.0 36.0 41.0 43.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.99 3.49 2.51 2.37 2.23 1.95 1.72
0.075 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.5 30.0 33.5 36.0 40.0 42.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.65 3.01 2.47 2.33 2.16 1.90 1.65
0.1 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 24.0 26.5 30.5 34.0 36.0 38.0 39.0
6.50 5.87 5.31 3.26 2.61 2.54 2.41 2.28 2.09 1.72 1.45
0.125 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.5 34.0 36.0 37.0 38.0
2.71 2.71 2.71 2.60 2.57 2.50 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.60 1.35
0.15 22.0 22.5 23.5 25.0 27.0 29.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 36.5 37.0
2.66 2.61 2.61 2.55 2.50 2.45 2.28 2.06 1.93 1.50 1.24
0.175 23.5 24.0 25.0 26.5 28.0 30.0 32.5 34.0 35.0 35.5 36.0
2.59 2.58 2.54 2.50 2.41 2.39 2.20 1.95 1.74 1.35 1.11
0.2 25.0 25.5 26.5 27.5 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 35.0 36.0
2.55 2.49 2.48 2.45 2.37 2.33 2.10 1.82 1.58 1.21 1.00
0.225 26.5 27.0 27.5 29.0 30.5 32.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 36.5 39.0
2.45 2.44 2.43 2.37 2.33 2.27 1.92 1.67 1.43 1.18 1.14
0.25 28.0 28.5 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.5 38.5 41.5
2.36 2.36 2.32 2.30 2.28 2.01 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.30 1.25
Table 13-11 - Values of and for Sections without
Transverse Reinforcement
x * 1000
sx
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2
<=130 26.0 26.0 27.0 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 36.0 38.0
6.90 5.70 4.94 3.78 3.19 2.82 2.56 2.19 1.93
250 27.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 39.0 40.0 43.0 45.0
6.77 5.53 4.65 3.45 2.83 2.46 2.19 1.87 1.65
380 27.0 30.0 32.0 37.0 40.0 43.0 45.0 48.0 50.0
6.57 5.42 4.47 3.21 2.59 2.23 1.98 1.65 1.45
630 28.0 31.0 35.0 41.0 45.0 48.0 51.0 54.0 57.0
6.24 5.36 4.19 2.85 2.26 1.92 1.69 1.40 1.18
1270 31.0 33.0 38.0 48.0 53.0 57.0 59.0 63.0 66.0
5.62 5.24 3.83 2.39 1.82 1.50 1.27 1.00 0.83
2500 35.0 35.0 42.0 55.0 62.0 66.0 69.0 72.0 75.0
4.78 4.78 3.47 1.88 1.35 1.06 0.87 0.65 0.52
5000 42.0 42.0 47.0 64.0 71.0 74.0 77.0 80.0 82.0
3.83 3.83 3.11 1.39 0.90 0.66 0.53 0.37 0.28
Figure 13-5 Illustration of Ac
• The strain, x, is used as an indicator of the longitudinal stiffness of
the section and of the magnitude of the moment, axial force, and
prestressing force. Sections that contain large percentages of
longitudinal reinforcement, are prestressed, or are subjected to
small moments, will have low values of x. For many prestressed
sections, it will be found that x is close to 0.0. Such sections will
have small web deformations, and hence, high values of Vc.
• The values of and are based on calculating the stresses that can
be transmitted across diagonally cracked concrete. As the cracks
become wider, the stress that can be transmitted decreases. For
members containing transverse reinforcement, it is assumed that
the diagonal cracks will be spaced about 300 mm apart. For
members without transverse reinforcement, the spacing of diagonal
cracks inclined at to the longitudinal reinforcement is assumed to
be sx/sin. Hence, deeper members having larger values of sx are
assumed to have more widely spaced cracks and, hence, cannot
transmit such high shear stresses as shown in Figure 13-7, which
provides some guidance in the determination of the parameter sx.