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Inorganic Pigments
Synthetic Pigments
 O
 
 
 

 


    

¢ Pickles colored green with copper sulfate
¢ Cheese colored with vermilion (HgS) and red
lead (Pb3O4)
¢ Tea leaves colored with copper arsenite, lead
chromate, and indigo
¢ Candies and other confectioneries pigmented
with lead chromate, red lead, vermilion, and
white lead (lead carbonate).
 
 
  

 
 


¢ Some inorganic compounds are still used as colorants
in foods
º Mainly because of their other properties, although they
also contribute to color
¢ Calcium carbonate
º as an anticaking agent, acidity regulator, emulsifier, and
stabilizer
º but it also contributes to color
¢ Magnesium chloride and magnesium hydroxide are
also food additives that contribute to food color
 =

    
¢ Titanium dioxide
¢ Carbon black
¢ Ultramarines (ultramarine blue)
¢ Calcium carbonate
¢ Iron oxides and hydroxides
¢ Silver, gold, and aluminum
 u
 
¢ TiO2 is an intensely white Sulfate process
pigment;
¢ Exhibits excellent stability
toward light, oxidation, pH,
and microbiological attack
¢ TiO2 is found in three Chloride process
crystalline forms in nature:
º anatase, brookite, and rutile
¢ Virtually insoluble in all
common solvents but
soluble in mineral acids TiO2 commercial presentations are in
water- and oil-dispersible forms
 
 
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¢ Only grades of the highest purity are permitted

º Uncoated anatase pigments, with higher TiO2 content, between 95
and 99% are gener
¢ TiO2 is approved for use in general for coloring foods
º the quantity added must not exceed 1% by weight of the food
¢ Sugar-panned confectionery to give an opaque white finish or
as background to other colors
¢ The approval for drugs and cosmetics is in accordance with
GMP
¢ Xanthan gum at 0.05/kg stabilizes the dispersion of TiO2
º providing the best whitening characteristic and without undesirable
effects
  
  u !
¢ Dairy products (renneted milk, pasteurized cream,
sterilized and UHT fat creams)
¢ Fresh meat, poultry, and game; whole pieces or cuts
¢ Fresh, frozen, and cooked marine products (fish,
mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms)
¢ Fresh eggs
¢ Infant food formulae
¢ Wines (sparkling, semisparkling, and aromatized)
¢ Fresh meat, poultry, and game; comminuted
¢ As a barrier film, by coating glass containers to
protect sensitive foods from light
 |

 
"
¢ Composed of
º a fixed content of carbon (80 to 96%) and volatile compounds
¢ Its particles are of colloidal size (20 to 65 ʅm)
¢ Method of production
º Controlled combustion of natural gas followed by ignition
against a mobile surface of cold iron where carbon black is
deposited
º Conditions must be carefully controlled to obtain particles of the
desired characteristics
¢ Its use in color foods is very limited
º In Europe it is utilized in sugar confectionery
º Not Approved by US FDA
 

  


Fine powder

Yellowish-gray or
pale greenish-
yellow

Used for enhancing

the color of ripe
olives
  



 # 



  $
¢ Synthetic colors of indefinite composition
º complex combination of silica, alumina, sodium oxide, and sulfur
º empirical formula Na2Al6Si6O24S3
º highly resonating polysulfide linkages produce the color
º originally intended to mimic the color of the semiprecious gem lazurit
¢ Method of production
º Mixing kaolin (China clay), silica, sulfur, soda ash, sodium sulfate, and
carbonaceous reducing agent (e.g., rosin, charcoal pitch) at (up to
800°C/24 h) followed by slow cooling
º Calcinated materials are washed, wet-milled, dried, milled, and
packed.
º Different colors are obtained by manipulation of ingredients and
process conditions.
  




¢ Insoluble in water and organic solvents
¢ Used to impart a blue color to the products
º range of colors extends from violet or red to green
¢ Ultramarines are permitted 0.5% color
concentration in feed preparation as a salt
source
¢ Widely used in cosmetics
 |
 



Found in nature as chalk,
limestone, marble, and feldspar

Calcium carbonate is neither toxic

nor dangerous to health

Calcium carbonate has not been

approved as a food color additive
by the FDA
The FDA classifies calcium
carbonate as a GRAS
White colorant of certain foods
Ingredient in chewing gum, toothpaste,
and sometimes in sugar confectionery
instead of titanium dioxide
Synthetic calcium carbonate is also
utilized as a filler in plastics for packing
food
 
   |
 |


 


¢ Renneted milk, sterilized, and UHT fat creams GMP
¢ Flours and starches
¢ Fresh meat, poultry, and game; whole pieces or cuts
¢ Fresh, frozen, and cooked marine products (fish, mollusks, crustaceans,
and echinoderms)
¢ Infant food formulae
¢ Canned or bottled (pasteurized) fruit juice
¢ Pasteurized cream
¢ Sterilized, UHT, whipping or whipped, and reduced fat creams
¢ Whole, broken, or flaked grain, including rice
¢ Fresh meat, poultry, and game; comminuted
¢ Salt
¢ Wines
 =
 
 

¢ All iron oxide pigments meet the FDA requirements for
plastics, pigments, or inks in contact with food
¢ According to all legislation they are defined as inorganic
pigments and are used as food additives
¢ Iron oxide red
º other names are pigment red 101, bright red iron oxide, Indian red,
Turkey red, and ferrite red, among others);
¢ Ferrite yellow
º also known as synthetic ocher, ferrite oxide monohydrate, iron oxide
yellow, or pigment yellow 42
¢ Iron oxide black
 Iron oxide black by precipitation process

Penniman-Zoph or scrap process for yellow iron oxide

Aniline process for yellow iron oxide

Direct precipitation method for yellow iron oxide

Calcination of ferrous sulfate for red oxide

Iron red oxides do not exhibit the

color purity or the high chroma of
the organic pigments but their price
is one quarter to one tenth lower
 =
 
 

¢ Iron oxides are insoluble in most solvents but
usually soluble in hydrochloric acid.
¢ Permitted by the FDA at levels not exceeding
0.25% by weight in fish pastes and pet foods
¢ Also permitted in pharmaceutical and
cosmetological applications
¢ Preferred choice when products are
manufactured by severe heat treatments
 O 
%  %


¢ Use of these metals in foods is not approved
by the FDA
¢ Used as a finely divided powder or leaf for
confectionery items and cake decorations
º in Middle and Far Eastern countries
 |

    



¢ Azo dyes:
º Allura red (E129), sunset yellow (E110) and tartrazine
(E102)
¢ Triarylmethane dyes: Brilliant blue (E133) and fast
green
¢ Indigoid dyes: Indigotine (E132)
¢ Arylmethane dyes
¢ Xanthene dyes: Erythrosine (E127)
¢ Quinoline dyes
¢ Anthraquinones
¢ Phenols
  


 #!&'$

¢ CAS No. 25956ʹ17ʹ6

Maraschino cherries
¢ Chemical names Gelatin desserts
º 6-Hydroxy-5-((2-methoxy-5-methyl-4- Ice cream and frozen
sulfophenyl) azo)-2-naphthalenesulfonic acid desserts
disodium salt Beverages
º 6-Hydroxy-5-((6-methoxy-4-sulf-à
à Dry powdered drinks
à

à
à
 Candy and confectionery
salt products that are oil and
fat free
¢ Synonyms Bakery products
º FD&C red No. 40; C.I. 16035; C.I. food red 17 Cereals, and puddings
¢ Properties Maximum permitted
º Dark red powder solubility at 25°C; water level in fermented milk is
22.5%; 50% alcohol, 13%; low solubility in 50 mg/kg and in other
glycerol and polyethyleneglycol products is 300 mg/kg
|
   



O  O   #&&($
 O   #&&($
¢ CAS No. 2783ʹ94ʹ0
¢ Chemical name(s)
º 6-Hydroxy-5-((4-sulfophenyl) azo)-2-
naphthalenesulfonic acid disodium salt Gelatin desserts,
¢ Synonyms Dairy-based desserts (ice cream
º 1- à
à
à  and frozen desserts),
à
à
 Beverages,
 àà6; C.I. food yellow 3; C.I. Dry powdered drinks,
15985 Candy and confectionery
¢ Physical data products that are oil and fat free,
º Orange red crystals; absorption max. Bakery products,
(0.02  ! "#

 Cereals, puddings,
º à$ 
water; slightly soluble in Fruit based desserts,
ethanol;
Dried vegetables,
º forms a reddish-orange solution in
concentrated sulfuric acid, changing to Fermented vegetable products,
yellow on dilution Sugars and table top sugars,
¢ Maximum level of 300 mg/kg Water-based flavored
Drinks and snacks, among others
 u



) #&(!$
¢ |O *+ &!!!,-!&-.
¢ Chemical name(s)
º 5-Oxo-1-( à
 %&
à
à' (àà

($à)
¢ Synonyms
º C.I. 19140:1; C.I. food yellow 4; C.I.
pigment yellow 100
¢ Physical data
º Bright orange-yellow powder;
º freely soluble in water;
º the aqueous solution is not changed by
HCl but becomes redder with sodium
hydroxide
¢ Permitted levels
º 300 mg/kg in all of its applications
   u



)
¢ Gelatin desserts, dairy-based desserts (ice cream and frozen
desserts),
¢ Beverages, dry powdered drinks,
¢ Candy and confectionery products that are oil and fat free,
¢ Bakery products, cereals, puddings,
¢ Fruit-based desserts, fruit fillings for pastries,
¢ Dried vegetables, fermented vegetable products,
¢ Precooked or dried pastas and noodles,
¢ Egg-based desserts (e.g., custards),
¢ Sugars and table top sweeteners,
¢ Water-based flavored drinks,
¢ Beverage whiteners and snacks, among others
 O  u



) &(!

Stage I

Stage II
 
 
   #&//$
¢ CAS No. 3844ʹ45ʹ9
¢ Chemical name(s)
º  *  & && & && à



à
&
à
methylene)-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-ylidene)-3-
sulfobenzenemethanaminium inner salt, disodium salt
¢ Synonyms
º FD&C blue No. 1; C.I. acid blue; C.I. food blue 2; C.I. 42090
¢ Physical data
º Reddish-violet powder or granules with a metallic luster; absorption
max.: 630 nm;
º solubility in water and ethanol;
º practically insoluble in vegetable oils;
º forms a pale amber solution in concentrated sulfuric acid, changing to
yellow then greenish-yellow on dilution;
º solubility in glycerol and polyethylene glycol is similar to that in water
Stage 1. Condensation O  
 
  

Stage 2. Oxidation
   
 
  
¢ Maraschino cherries,
¢ Gelatin desserts, dairy-based desserts (ice cream and
frozen desserts),
¢ Dry powdered drinks, candy and confectionery
products that are oil and fat free,
¢ Bakery products, cereals, puddings, fruit-based
desserts,
¢ Dried vegetables, fermented vegetable products,
¢ Sugars and table top sugars,
¢ Water-based flavored drinks and snacks,
¢ Fermented milks, cheese, among others
 
 0
 Approved in 1982 for food use

3-( *  & && &   & à

à$


à
& (à)
sulfonatophenyl) methylene)-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-ylidineammoniomethyl)-
benzensulfonate

Fast green synthesis is similar to that of brilliant blue benzaldehyde- (à) à

à
 instead of benzaldehyde-à à


Synonyms: C.I. food green 3; FD&C green 3; Ins No. 143; C.I. 42053

Red to brown-violet powder or crystals; soluble in water; slightly soluble in

ethanol

Maximum permitted level 100 mg/kg

 
 
 
¢ Fermented milks, fat-based desserts excluding dairy-based
dessert products
¢ Fruit-based spreads, candied fruit, fruit preparations (pulps,
purees, fruit-based desserts, including fruit-flavored water-
based desserts, fruit fillings for pastries,
¢ Confectionery (hard and soft candy), bakery,
¢ Precooked or dried pastas and noodles, cereal and starch-
based desserts (e.g., rice puddings and tapioca pudding)
¢ Fishery products (fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and
echinoderms), fully preserved fishery products (canned or
fermented)
¢ Egg-based desserts, herbs, spices, seasonings (including salt
substitutes), emulsified sauces
 = #&/!$
¢ Approved in 1987 for food use
¢ CAS No. 860ʹ22ʹ0
¢ |

#$
º 2-(1,3-Dihydro-3-oxo-5-sulfo-2H-indol-2-ylidine)-2,3-
dihydro-3-oxo-1H-indole-5- sulfuric acid disodium salt 3,3m-
dioxo-(ȴ2,2-biindoline)-5,5m-disulfonic acid disodium salt
¢ O
º Disodium 5,5m-indigotin disulfonate;
º sodium indigotin disulfonate;
º soluble indigo blue; indigo carmine; acid blue 74; C.I. acid
blue 74; C.I. food blue 1; FD&C blue No. 2; C.I. 73015
 =1 



¢ Dark-blue powder with coppery luster
¢ Sensitive to light; indigotine solutions have a blue or
bluish-purple color
¢ Soluble in water at 25°C, slightly soluble in alcohol,
and insoluble in organic solvents
¢ Always contains sodium chloride or sulfate used for
salting it out
¢ Very sensitive to oxidizing agents
¢ The color is affected by acids and solutions fade on
standing
= O

= O
 =1 
¢ Dry powdered drinks, candy and confectionery
products that are oil and fat free
¢ Bakery products, cereals, puddings, dairy-based
desserts (e.g., ice cream, ice milk)
¢ Fruit-based desserts, fruit fillings for pastries, egg-
based desserts (e.g., custard)
¢ Sugars (e.g., white and semi-white, syrups), table top
sweeteners
¢ Water-based flavored drinks, including sport or
electrolyte drinks, snacks (potato, cereal, flour, or
starch based), among others
 

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¢ Xanthene colorant approved in 1969
º Exhibits brilliant color for yellow or bluing red, as well as
fluorescence
º Precursor is fluorescein (one of the earliest synthesized
pigments)
¢ CAS No. 16423ʹ68ʹ0
¢ Chemical name(s)
º 3m,6m-Dihydroxy-2m,4m,5m,7m-tetraiodospiro(isobenzofuran-1(3H),9m-
9H) xanthen)-3-one disodium salt
¢ Synonyms
º 2m,4m,5m,7m-Tetraiodofluorescein disodium salt;
º Erythrosine BS; erythrosine B; FD&C red No. 3
º C.I. food red 14; C.I. acid red 51; C.I. 45430
 

1 



¢ Brown powder; absorption max. (water): 524
nm, in 95% alcohol 531 nm;
¢ Solubility in water to cherry-red solution;
¢ Hydrochloric acid added to an aqueous
solution produces yellowish-brown
precipitate;
¢ Sodium hydroxide produces a red precipitate
 The reaction is carried out in an


  alkaline solution

Fluorescein is precipitated with acid and then treated with iodine.

The reaction is carried out in a solution of caustic soda that is subjected to

electrolysis
 

  Max level up to 300 mg/kg is permitted

¢ Maraschino cherries, eggs, canned cherries, rhubarb, strawberries,

ice cream and frozen desserts,
¢ Candy and confectionery products that are oil and fat free, bakery
products,
¢ Cereals, puddings, fermented milks, fruit-based spreads, fruit
preparations (pulps, purees, fruit toppings, and coconut milks),
¢ Fishery products (frozen fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and
echinoderms),
¢ Sugars (e.g., white and semi-white, brown sugar, maple sugar),
herbs, spices, and seasonings, food supplements,
¢ Water-based flavoring drinks including sport or electrolyte drinks,
snacks (potato, cereal, flour, or starch based), and composite foods
(e.g., casseroles, meat pies, mincemeat)
      


¢ Certified colors provide different hue colors to
industry
¢ Blue No. 1: Bright yellow
¢ Blue No. 2: Royal blue
¢ Green No. 3: Sea green
¢ Red No. 3: Watermelon red
¢ Red No. 40: Orange red
   


 | 

  

O O
 #

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 | 

  

O O
 #

  $
 | 
O
 1 2 

2

0 = without appreciable fade; 1 = very slight fade; 2 = slight fade;

3 = appreciable fade; 4 = considerable fade; 5 = fades
| 
O
     



0 = without appreciable fade; 1 = very slight fade; 2 = slight fade;

3 = appreciable fade; 4 = considerable fade; 5 = fades
| 
O
    
  



0 = without appreciable fade; 1 = very slight fade; 2 = slight fade;

3 = appreciable fade; 4 = considerable fade; 5 = fades
 | 
O
    

"


0 = without appreciable fade; 1 = very slight fade; 2 = slight fade;

3 = appreciable fade; 4 = considerable fade; 5 = fades

B = bluer; S.B. = slightly bluer; H.B. = highly bluer

O
    
  
 

0 = without appreciable fade; 1 = very slight fade; 2 = slight fade;

3 = appreciable fade; 4 = considerable fade; 5 = fades
  


¢ Different presentations of dyes are
commercially available Color Bits and Color Wafers
º powders, liquids, pastes, and dispersions International Foodcraft
Corporation
¢ Liquid presentations
º water, sucrose, glycerin, and propylene
Dustmaster 2000 (Warner
glycol
Jenkinson Company) is a
¢ Paste colors porous granular product that
º made by blending FD&C dyes with wets and dissolves faster
glycerin, propylene glycol, dextrose, and than other granular forms.
sometimes gums.
¢ Dispersions in confectionary
º mixing the dye with titanium dioxide
|



  

 
| 
|



  


 | 
 
"
Lake is formed by dye precipitation onto the substrate by effect of
the addition of the aluminum salt solution.

Lakes are prepared by extending the FD&C dye on a substratum

of alumina in two stages

Hydrate formation

Laking process

Hydrate formation is a critical step in the Lake particles tend to coalesce to the
production of lakes, and performance detriment of product appearance. This
and quality depends strongly on this stage problem is minimized by using dispersions
|

 

  
"
 
 u 

 3"
4
 

 
 5 3"%   =u
#&'67$81
¢ One subchronic feeding study, of 90 days duration, in
a nonrodent species, usually the dog
¢ Acute toxicity studies in rats
¢ Chronic feeding studies in at least two animal species
(one with in utero exposure), lasting at least 24ʹ30
months
¢ One teratology study
¢ One multigeneration reproduction study using mice
¢ One mutagenicity test
|


  
  =
" 



|
 | 

 
 2
 
 2

 
¢ Tartrazine (FD&C Yellow No. 5)
º linked with hypersensitivity in certain individuals (Atopic individuals)
¢ SunsetYellow FCF (FD&C Yellow No. 6)
º proposed for label declaration by the FDA because of putative
hypersensitivity
º Opposed by International Association of Color Manufacturers
¢ Ingestion of certified colorants promoted hyperactivity in
children (Fenigold͛s hypothesis)
º opposed by FDA
º a recent doubleblind, placebo-controlled study once again linked
tartrazine ingestion with irritability, restlessness, and sleep
disturbances in some children
| 

 O9  |


Monoazo colorants
)