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ELECTRIC MOTORS

Motor Types

•Induction Motors
•Direct-Current Motors
•Synchronous Motors

Motor Characteristics

Motor Speed
Synchronous Speed (RPM) = 120 × Frequency/No. of Poles

Slip = (synchronous speed – speed of the motor)/synchronous speed

Indian motors have synchronous speeds like 3000 / 1500 / 1000 / 750 / 600 /
500 / 375 RPM corresponding to no. of poles being 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16
(always even) and given the mains frequency of 50 cycles / sec.

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As per relation stated above, the speed of an AC motor is determined
by the number of motor poles and by the input frequency. It can also be
seen that theoretically speed of an AC motor can be varied infinitely by
changing the frequency. Manufacturer's guidelines should be
referred for practical limits to speed variation. With the addition of a
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), the speed of the motor can be
decreased as well as increased

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Power Factor
The power factor of the motor is given as:
As the load on the motor comes down, the magnitude of the active current
reduces. However, there is no corresponding reduction in the magnetizing
current, which is proportional to supply voltage with the result that the
motor power factor reduces, with a reduction in applied load. Induction
motors, especially those operating below their rated capacity, are the main
reason for low power factor in electric systems.

Motor Efficiency

•Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors,
•higher-speed motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors.
•Efficiency is also a function of motor temperature
•Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient than screen
protected drip-proof (SPDP) motors

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Losses:
•Intrinsic losses are of two types:
•fixed losses - independent of motor load, and
variable losses - dependent on load
•Fixed losses consist of magnetic core losses and friction and windage
losses
•They vary with the core material and geometry and with input voltage.
•Friction and windage losses are caused by friction in the bearings of the
motor and aerodynamic losses associated with the ventilation fan and other
rotating parts.
Variable losses consist of resistance losses in the stator and in the rotor and
miscellaneous stray losses
Stray losses
arise from a variety of sources and are difficult to either measure directly or to
calculate, but are generally proportional to the square of the rotor current

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Field Tests for Determining Efficiency

•No Load Test:


•F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) - (No load current)2 × Stator
resistance

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Stator and Rotor I2R Losses:

The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge


or volt amp method.

The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature. For modern


motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of
100°C to 120°C and necessary correction should be made as follows
( 235 + t2 )/ .( 235 +t1 )= R2/R1 , where, t1 = ambient temperature, °C &
t2 = operating temperature, °C

•Rotor I2R losses = Slip × (Stator Input – Stator I2R Losses – Core Loss)
Stray Load Losses:
• These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard
112 gives a complicated method, which is rarely used on shop floor
IS and IEC standards take a fixed value as 0.5 % of input. The actual value
of stray losses is likely to be more.

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IEEE –112 specifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 %

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SELECTION OF MOTORS

•THE TORQUE required by the load, especially the


relationship between the maximum torque generated
by the motor (break-down torque) and the torque
requirements for start-up (locked rotor torque) and
during acceleration periods.

•THE DUTY / LOAD CYCLE determines the thermal


loading on the motor

•AMBIENT OPERATING CONDITIONS affect motor


choice; special motor designs are available for
corrosive or dusty atmospheres, high temperatures,
restricted physical space, etc.
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•INVENTORY-Many large industries use standard
equipment, which can be easily serviced or replaced,
thereby reducing the stock of spare parts that must be
maintained and minimizing shut-down time.

COST-the purchase of less expensive motors that may be


more costly on a lifecycle basis because of lower
efficiency. energy efficient motors or other specially
designed motors typically save within a few years an
amount of money equal to several times the incremental
cost for an energy efficient motor, over a standard-
efficiency motor.
•RELIABILITY- Good knowledge of process parameters
and a better understanding of the plant power system can
aid in reducing over sizing with no loss of reliability

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ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

•(EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are


incorporated specifically to increase operating efficiency over
motors of standard design’
Design improvements are
• reducing intrinsic motor losses,
• the use of lower-loss silicon steel,
• a longer core (to increase active material),
• thicker wires (to reduce resistance),
•thinner laminations,
•smaller air gap between stator and rotor,
•copper instead of aluminum bars in the rotor,
•superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.

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•Bis, energy-efficient motors are designed to operate without
loss in efficiency at loads between 75 % and 100 % of rated
capacity.

•Power factor is about the same or may be higher than for


standard motors

• Energy efficient motors have lower operating temperatures


and noise levels

•Greater ability to accelerate higher-inertia loads,

• less affected by supply voltage fluctuations.

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Stator and Rotor I2R Losses

•These losses are major losses and typically account for 55%
to 60% of the total losses

I2R losses are heating losses resulting from current passing


through stator and rotor conductors

R = ρl/A, The suitable selection of copper conductor size will


reduce the resistance.

•Reducing the motor current is most readily


accomplished by decreasing the magnetizing component of
current. This involves lowering the operating flux density and
possible shortening of air gap.
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•Rotor I2R losses depend on rotor conductors(cu) and
slip

Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also


reduce rotor I2R losses.

Core Losses

• These losses are independent of load and account for


20 – 25 % of the total losses.
•It is a function of flux density and reduced by utilizing
low loss grade of silicon steel laminations and achieved
by suitable increase in the core length of stator and
rotor.
• Eddy current losses are reduced by using laminations
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Friction and Windage Losses
•Friction and windage losses results from bearing
friction, windage and circulating air through the motor
and account for 8 – 12 % of total losses
• Independent of load
• Less losses in stator and rotor reduces the size of the
fan
•The windage losses also reduce with the diameter of
fan leading to reduction in windage losses.
• Stray Load-Losses
•4 to 5 % of total losses
•These losses vary according to square of the load
current and are caused by leakage flux induced by load
currents in the laminations
These losses are reduced by careful selection of slot
numbers, tooth/slot geometry and air gap.
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Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of
ratings and the full load efficiencies are higher
by 3 to 7 %. The mounting dimensions are also
maintained as per IS1231 to enable easy
replacement

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SUMMARY OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS IN EEMS

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Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimizing Motor
Losses in Operation
• Power Supply Quality – voltage and frequency

a. Motors in India must comply with standards set by the Bureau of


Indian Standards (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input power
quality

b. voltage variation of +/- 6 % and frequency variation of +/- 3 %.

c. Voltage fluctuations can have detrimental impacts on motor


performance.

d. Voltage unbalance can be still more detrimental to motor performance


and motor life. -supplying single-phase loads disproportionately from
one of the phases , result from the use of different sizes of cables in
the distribution system
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Minimize voltage unbalance include:
i) Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases
ii) Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance
and feed them from a separate line / transformer

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Motor Loading
Measuring Load - % Loading of the motor can be estimated by the
following relation:

• Never assume power factor


• Loading should not be estimated as the ratio of currents.

Under loading –
•sub-optimal motor efficiency is that of under-loading

 Under-loading results in lower efficiency and power factor, and


higher-than-necessary first cost for the motor and related control
equipment.
 large safety factor in motors –ex. depth of cut in a lathe machine
 under-utilisation of the equipment -
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selection of a larger motor to enable the output to be maintained at the
desired level even when input voltages are abnormally low

 under-loading also results from selecting a large motor for an application


requiring high starting torque
Sizing to Variable Load:

Industrial motors frequently operate under varying load


conditions due to process requirements.
select a motor based on the highest anticipated load.
 an alternative approach is typically less costly, more
efficient, and provides equally satisfactory operation
 With this approach, the optimum rating for
the motor is selected on the basis of the load duration curve
for the particular application.
in addition to proper motor sizing, the control strategy
employed can have a significant impact on motor electricity
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Power Factor Correction:

induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to
lower overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost) in a plant.

The impacts of PF correction includes


 reduced kVA demand (and hence
reduced utility demand charges),
 reduced I2R losses in cables upstream of the capacitor (and hence reduced
energy charges),
 reduced voltage drop in the cables (leading to improved voltage regulation),
and
an increase in the overall efficiency of the plant electrical system.

size of capacitor :
 it depends on the no load kVAR
 the capacitor is then selected to not exceed 90 % of the no-load kVAR of the
motor. (Higher capacitors could result in over-voltages and motor burn-outs).
speed of the motor,

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Maintenance:
Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses and lead to
unreliable operation, EX --
1. improper lubrication leads to increased friction

2,resistance losses increase temperature

3. Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts clean can help
dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses.

For every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature


over the recommended peak, the time before rewinding
would be needed is estimated to be halved

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Age:

Motors are manufactured from silicon steel or de-carbonized cold-


rolled steel ,the electrical properties of which do not change
measurably with age

 However poor maintenance (inadequate lubrication of bearings,


insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.) results in
deterioration of motor efficiency over time

 Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect on motor


performance. Ex --excessively high temperatures, high dust loading,
corrosive atmosphere, and humidity can impair insulation properties;
mechanical stresses due to load cycling can lead to misalignment.

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Rewinding Effects on Energy Efficiency:

common practice in industry to rewind burnt-out motors

50 % of the total population of motors

Careful rewinding sometimes maintains motor efficiency as earlier, but it in


most cases efficiency is lost.

Rewinding can affect a number of factors which is injurious to motor efficiency –


a. winding and slot design,
b. winding material,
c. insulation performance,
d. and operating temperature

Example,-1 A common problem occurs when heat is applied to strip old


windings : the insulation between laminations can be damaged, thereby
increasing eddy current losses.

Example,-2 A change in the air gap may affect power factor and output torque

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However , Efficiency can be improved by changing the winding design, though the
power factor could be affected in the process.

• Using wires of greater cross section, slot size permitting, would reduce stator
losses thereby increasing efficiency.

impact of rewinding on motor efficiency and power factor can be easily


assessed if the no-load losses of a motor are known before and after rewinding

Thus record of no-load losses and no-load speed from the time of purchase of
each motor
EX- Comparison of no load current and stator resistance per phase of a rewound
motor with the original no-load current and stator resistance at the same voltage
can be one of the indicators to assess the efficacy of rewinding.

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Speed Control of AC Induction Motors
• discussion on dc

• Restricted low-to-medium power applications like machine tools and rolling


mills because of problems with mechanical commutation at large sizes.

• Used only in clean, non-hazardous areas because of the risk of sparking at the
brushes

• Expensive relative to AC motors

AC drives – synchronous and induction motors


• Induction motors-

• rugged

•low maintenance ,

•less expensive,

• provide a high power to weight ratio (about twice that of a DC motor).

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Speed controls of IM – control strategies depend on no. of factors like

 investment cost, load reliability

a detailed review of the load characteristics

 historical data on process flows,

 the electricity tariffs

Load characteristics refers to torque output and corresponding speed required

1 constant torque – Conveyors, rotary kilns, and constant-displacement pumps

Centrifugal pumps and fans are typical examples of variable torque loads (torque
varies as the square of the speed).

2 constant power - Constant power loads are those for which the torque
requirements typically change inversely with speed. Ex- Machine tools

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Motor Speed Control Systems

I. Multi-speed motors –
• Motors can be wound such that two speeds, in the ratio of 2:1,

•Multi-speed motors can be designed for applications involving constant


torque, variable torque, or for constant output power

• require limited speed control (two or four fixed speeds instead of


continuously variable speed)

•Very economical

• lower efficiency compared single speed motors

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Adjustable Frequency AC Drives:

• Adjustable frequency drives are also commonly called inverters. They


are available in a range of kW rating from fractional to 750 kW

• 50 Hz incoming power to a variable frequency and variable voltage.

• Types - Current Source Inverters (CSI), Variable Voltage Inverters


(VVI), and Pulse Width Modulated Inverters (PWM).

Direct Current Drives (DC) :

The controller is a phase controlled bridge rectifier with logic circuits to


control the DC voltage delivered to the motor armature.

Wound Rotor AC Motor Drives (Slip Ring Induction Motors) :


The rotor windings are connected to a controller which places variable
resistors in series with the windings

• range of the motor –above 300hp


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Motor Load Survey: Methodology

Motor load survey is aimed not only as a measure to identify


motor efficiency areas but equally importantly, as a means to
check combined efficiency of the motor, driven machine and
controller if any. The margins in motor efficiency may be less
than 10 % of consumption often, but the load survey would
help to bring out savings in driven machines / systems, which
can give 30 – 40 % energy savings.

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Motor Load Survey: Methodology: Large industries have a massive
population of LT motors

load survey of LT motors

Sampling Criteria

•Utilization factor - hours of operation with preference given to


continuously operated drive motors

• Sample representative - Ex : Cooling Tower Fans, Air Washer Units, etc

•Conservation potential basis- where drive motors with inefficient capacity


controls on the machine side, fluctuating load drive systems, etc., are
looked into

 Measurements

Studies on selected LT motors involve measurement –V,I,P,PF , speed,


load, pressure, temperature
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Analysis

Analysis of observations is carried out towards following outputs

– Motor load on kW basis and estimated energy consumption

– Scope for improving monitoring systems to enable in house energy audit

– Scope areas for energy conservation with related cost benefits and source
information

The observations are to indicate:


% loading on kW,
% voltage unbalance if any,
voltage, current, frequency, power factor,
machine side conditions like load / unload condition, pressure, flow,
temperature, damper /throttle operation,
whether it is a rewound motor, idle operations, metering provisions, etc.

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The findings / recommendations may include:

• Identified motors with less than 50 % loading, 50 – 75 % loading, 75 – 100 %


loading, over 100 % loading.

• Identified motors with low voltage / power factor / voltage imbalance for
needed improvement measures.

• Identified motors with machine side losses / inefficiencies like idle operations,
throttling /damper operations for avenues like automatic controls / interlocks,
variable speed drives,etc

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