Nursing Research

MNL De Guzman MAN RN LPT

 Research and Nursing
• Why research?
• Why is there a need for nursing research?

• Objectives:
– Define research and nursing research
– Describe characteristics of research and a nurse
researcher
– Identify the purpose of research
– Discuss the four components of research
• Research – derived from old French word
cerchier meaning to “seek or search”. The
prefix “re” means “again”
 Research
• According to:
a) Webster - research is a studious inquiry or
examination, investigation or experimentation
aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts or practical applications of such new or
revised theories or laws.
• According to:
b) Barr – any systematic search for understanding
limited to a particular subject that, for purposes of
investigation, has been cast in problematic form and
formally defined.
• According to:
c) Treece – an attempt to gain solutions to
problems. It is the collection of data in a rigorously
controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or
explanation.
• According to:
d) Seltiz – discovers answers to questions through
the application of scientific procedures that have
been developed to increase the likelihood that
information gathered will be relevant, reliable and
unbiased.
• According to:
e) PNA – is an honest, scientific investigation
undertaken for the purpose of discovering new facts
or establishing new relationships among facts
already known which will contribute to the present
body of knowledge and can lead to an effective
solution of existing problems.
 Nursing Research
• According to:
a) Vreeland – is concerned with the systematic study
and assessment of nursing problems or phenomena;
finding ways to improve nursing practice and patient
care through creative studies; initiating and
evaluating change; and taking action to make new
knowledge useful in nursing.
• Nursing students do research to acquire skills
that will improve their study methods, and to
be acquainted with the improvements in
nursing practice and nursing education.
• According to:
b) Treece – includes the breadth and depth of the
discipline of nursing and the rehabilitative,
therapeutic and preventive aspects of nursing as
well as the preparation of practitioners and
personnel involved in the total nursing sphere.
• According to:
c) National Center for Nursing Research – is the
testing of knowledge that can be used to guide
nursing practice. It is concerned with examining
questions and verifying interventions based on
human experiences.
 Foundations of Nursing Knowledge
• Customs and traditions
– Social and cultural practices have been bases for
nursing care
• Use of hebal medicine
• Practices of manggagamot and hilot
 Foundations in Nursing Knowledge
• Authority
– Basic nursing knowledge is learned in colleges of
nursing
– Nursing practice are done according to
institution’s policies and procedures
– Standardized nursing practice are governed by the
Philippine Nursing Law and ANSAP
 Foundations in Nursing Knowledge
• Staff Development and Experience
– Practice experienced by clinical practitioners are
shared and accepted because they work in most
situations.
 Types of Research
• Pure or Basic research
– The search for new knowledge includes
establishing fundamental theories or relationships
among facts, which are not intended for
immediate use in real life situations
– Useful in advancing scientific knowledge or in
furthering research
 Types of Research
• Applied research
– Involves seeking new applications of scientific
knowledge in solving a problem, making decision,
developing or evaluating a program, procedure or
product.
• Eq. Determining the effectivness of different methods
of contraception
 Types of Research
• Action research
– Involves the study of a certain problem and, from
that experience, decisions, actions and
conclusions are drawn.
– Findings are limited to settings actually studied
• Eq. Application of quality assurance to improve nursing
care services to clients in a particular unit.
 Components of Scientific Research
• Order and System
– Refer to the process where in the researcher
moves in a systematic fashion, from identification
of the problem to conclusions and
recommendations
 Components of Scientific Research
• Control
– The imposition of conditions in the research
situation, to minimize bias and maximize the
precision and validity of data gathered.
 Components of Scientific Research
• Empiricism
– Refers to the gathering of evidence and relying on
one’s own senses.
 Components of Scientific Research
• Generalization
– The research findings may be applied to a
situation or population larger than the one
studied
 Characteristics of Research
1. Involves the gathering of new and existing data
from new sources or first-hand information
2. Directed toward the solution of a problem
3. Analytical. Characterized by carefully designed
procedures in collecting data and rigorous
analysis in interpreting them
 Characteristics of Research
4. Emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles and theories that may be helpful in
predicting future occurences.
5. Requires expertise. Researcher must be adequatey
prepared to undertake such endeavor.
6. It is empirical. It is based on direct experience and
demands accurate observation and description of
what is being studied.
 Characteristics of Research
7. Strives to be logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures being employed so that
the researcher has confidence in the results.
8. It is honest and characterized by patient and
unhurried activities.
9. It can be replicated to enable the researcher to
achieve valid and comprehensive results.
similarities and differences of replicated
researches can be confirmed.
 Characteristics of Research
10. Requires innovative approaches
11. It is carefully recorded and reported
 Characteristics of Nurse Researchers
• Intellectual Curiosity
– An inquisitive, curious, questioning mind is vital to nurse
researchers.
– Nurse researchers undertake inquiry and serious
thinking about situations and problems affecting nurses
and nursing
– Eager to seek information
– Read extensively on the subject
– Utilize their own training and experience and those of
others
 Characteristics of Nurse Researchers
• Creative Thinking
– Ability to go beyond what already exists and
develop various ways of doing things
 Characteristics of Nurse Researchers
• Critical Thinking
– Clinical expertise and a working knowledge of the
scientific problem-solving technique help to a
great extent in formalizing the study.
 Characteristics of Nurse Researchers
• Ability to relate their study to a known theory

• Patience and discipline to see the study through

– Digging up of required literature, sorting out the
relevant from the irrelevant, writing and rewriting
the manuscript until the study becomes an
integrated whole.
 Characteristics of Nurse Researchers
• Intellectual honesty
– Researchers are honest in collecting, analyzing,
and reporting data
 Characteristics of Nurse Researchers
• A sense of humor
– Researchers must accept inadequacies in the
study as bases for improvement
 Purposes of Nursing Research
• Provide scientific basis for the nursing profession
• Develop and evaluate new techniques for delivering
patient care
• Develop tools for assessing the effectiveness of
nursing interventions
• Provide solutions to problems concerning heatlh
maintenance, health deivery and health care
 Purposes of Nursing Research
• Help determine the areas of need relative to
nursing practices such as patient-teaching and
nurse-patient relationships
• Develop and evaluate alternative approaches to
nursing education that would enable the students
to gain broad knowledge and specialized skills for
safe practice
• Prepare oneself to be a diligent practitioner of
research
 Activity
1. Problem Identification
 Conceptualized topic
 Curiosity about topic
 Brainstorm with peers
 Review related literature
 Develop conceptual framework
 State specific problem
2. Methodological development
 Identify variables
 Formulate hypothesis
 Develop sampling size
 Develop instruments needed and validate
 Balance validity with reliability
 Clinical Nursing Research
• To guide nursing practice and to improve the
health and quality of life of clients.

• The product of nursing research will benefit

the patients
 Roles
• Principal investigator (leader)
• Member of the research team
• Research subject
• Identifier of researchable problem
• User of research findings
• Evaluator of research
• Client / patient advocate
 Phases of the Research Process
1. Conceptual phase
– Identify the problem / topic – what and why?
– Trends and issues
– Patient’s issues / needs that are deemed
necessary for research
 Phases of the Research Process
2. Design and Planning phase
– Who
– When
– Where
– How
– Method
 Phases of the Research Process
3. Implementation phase / Empirical phase
– Gathering of data
 Phases of the Research Process
4. Analytical phase
– Analyze / synthesize
 Phases of the Research Process
5. Dissemination phase
– Publish / present
– Increase awareness
– Informing the public
 Conceptual
• Sources of problems:
– Issues
– Experience / beliefs
– Literature
– Theories
• A good research problem:
– General applicability / use – (several respondents)
– Researchable
– Feasible – money, time, location, population,
measurable
– Interest
– Novelty / originality
– Significance / importance to nursing
 Topic

Problem (specify)

Declarative Interrogative
• Declarative
– Statement ends with period
Eq. Abuse and neglect contributes to elderly
psychological behavior.

• Interrogative
– Question mark
Eq. What is the effect of abuse and neglect on their age
of development?
• General problem in declarative form
• Specific problem – to guide the literature
review
> Purpose (declarative) – combination of what is
being done and why is it being done
• Introduction : may contain 4 paragraphs
– Last paragraph – paragraph of purpose
– Clear, concise, easy to understand
– Objectives:
• Specific intention of the study
• Literature review: (characteristic)
– 4R
• Relevant to the subject at hand
• Reliable – published material: Books and Journals
– ISBN # - internationally accepted
– Journal: name / date month & year of issue / vol or issue #
» Author / title of the article / page #
» APA format
» Infotrac / google scholar (published article)
• Recent – 2011 onwards
• Rephrased / Restated – only the relevant part of the article then
highlight
 Reasons for Literature Review
1. Define research questions, methods and
tools that may be useful to the study
2. Reveal difficulties experienced by others that
may save time, money and error in the
projected study
3. To provide clear information on the task
carried by the nurse personnel
4. To locate findings that may be included in a
similar study to confirm or refute earlier
findings
5. To provide comparative data that is available
in the analysis and interpretation of one’s
own study
6. To identify studies that may be replicated or re-
tested
7. To compare one’s finding with other theoretical
and conceptual framework

***Plagiarism
>>>act of copying one’s idea without the consent
of the author
• Variable
– Anything is subject to change for manipulation
– Main concept
• INDEPENDENT Variables – cause; influence the
dependent variables
• DEPENDENT Variable – effect; depending on the
independent variable
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Cause Effect

Stimulus Response

Experimental Outcome

Treatment variable Criterion variable

 Different Types of Variables

• Heterogenous – attributes are extremely

varied
• Homogenous – limited variability among
attributes of the same sample group
• Attribute variable
– Age, sex, height, weight, religion
– Inherent in the subjects
– Already present
• Active variable
– Created by the researcher
– Occasional basis
• Organism variable
– Factors related to the research subjects
– Physiological: mood, affect, fear
• Environmental variable
– Factors outside of the organism / person that bears
influence on the phenomenon under investigation
– Physical, economic, sociological

>>> Extreneous / Exogenous variable (contaminating factors)

• Antecedent variable
– Characteristics that the participants brought into
the study
• Intervening variable
– Comes in between the independent & dependent
variables
– Already implemented
• Dichotomous variable
– 2 choices / result
– Male / female; yes / no
• Polychotomous variable
– Multiple choices / multi variable
– Preferred food: japanese, chinese, spanish
 Simulacrum
• Visual representation of the relationship
among variables
• Like schemic diagram
• Helps in framing hypothesis
 Hypothesis
• Educated guess / outcome of the study

Purpose:
>>> to guide the researchers on how to
formulate a research
Types of Hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis
 Statistical hypothesis; stated

2. Alternative hypothesis
 Research hypothesis; researchers’ guess
Classification of Hypothesis:
1. Simple hypothesis
 Hypothesis contains only 1 independent variable and
1 dependent variable

2. Complex hypothesis
 Hypothesis may contain 2 or more independent
variables and 2 or more dependent variables;
 1 IV + 2 DV / 2 IV + 1 DV
3. Directional Hypothesis
 Tells the exact relationship of variables
 Tells variable whether (+) or (-) relationship

4. Non-directional Hypothesis
 Results of study are different from each variable
 Activity
• Enumerate 5 topics of your choice
• The approved topic will be your research topic
• Start the first part of your research after the
topic has been approved
 Format
1.0 Introduction – justification of the problem,
purpose and aim
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Theoretical Framework
- theory that suits the study (eq. Care, Core, Cure by Hall)
- 1st paragraph – brief explanation Hall’s theory in your own
words
- 2nd paragraph – relevance or connection between the theory &
your study (research); discuss the theory in the contest of the
study
2.2 Sub-topics
2.x Last part – SIMULACRUM (image)
 Report per Group
• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Experimental
• Population size
• Probability sampling
• Non-probability
 Quantitative Research
• Is formal, objective, systematic process in which
numerical data are used to obtain information
about the world

• Emerged from a branch of philosophy called

logical positivism, which operates on strict rules
of logic, truth, laws and prediction
 Quantitative Research
• Conducted to test theory by describing
variables, examining relationships among
variables, and determining cause-and-effect
interactions between variables
 Qualitative Research
• A systematic, subjective approach used to
describe life experiences and situations and to
give them meaning

• Evolved from the behavioral and social sciences

as a method of understanding the unique,
dynamic holistic nature of human beings
• Interpretative, humanistic and naturalistic; concerned
with understanding the meaning of social interactions
by those involved

• Conducted to promote understanding of human

experiences and situations and to develop theories
that describe these experiences and situations
***because human emotions are difficult to quantify
 Four categories of Quantitative
Research
1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Quasi-experimental
4. Experimental
 Descriptive
• Conducted to explore new ideas of research
and to describe situations as they exists
 Correlational
• Conducted to examine relationships and to
develop and refine expanatory knowledge for
nursing practice
 Quasi-experimental
• Conducted to determine the effectiveness of
nursing interventions in predicting and
controlling the outcomes desired for patients
and families
 Types of Qualitative Research
1. Phenomenological
2. Gounded theory
3. Ethnographical
4. Historical
 Phenomenological
• An inductive descriptive approach used to
describe an experience as it is lived by an
individual such as lived experience of chronic
pain
 Grounded Theory
• An inductive research technique that is used
to formulate, test, and refine a theory about a
particular phenomenon
 Ethnographical
• Develop by the discipline of anthropology for
investigating cultures through an in-depth
study of the members of the culture – such as
health practices that need to be recognized in
delivering care to patient family and
community
 TYPES OF SAMPLING
• Probability Sampling
– Simple random sampling
– Stratified random sampling
– Systematic sampling
– Cluster sampling
 TYPES OF SAMPLING
• Non-Probability Sampling
– Convenience or Accidental sampling
– Snowball or network sampling
– Judgemental or Purposive sampling
– Cross-Cultural sampling
– Longitudinal sampling
– Cross-sectional sampling
– Quota sampling
 Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling
– The selection of the sample is done by chance.
– Eg. Lottery draws or a table of random numbers
 Probability Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
– The population is subdivided into areas, sections,
then random samples are taken from each
– Eg. Divide the students into year levels: 1st year,
2nd yr, 3rd yr, 4th yr, and get random samples
from each level
 Probability Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
– Sampling by taking every _th of the person in a
locale (school, community, tel. directory,)
– Eg. Taking every 5th family in a barangay
 Probability Sampling
• Cluster sampling
– A small sample is taken from various sections of
the total population
– Eg. In studying the attitudes of nurses in Metro
Manila toward their work, a small sample from
each hospital will be taken
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Convenience or Accidental Sampling
– Data are collected from anyone most conveniently
available such as people on a street corner or in a
hospital or class
– This is the weakest form of sampling and is subject
to bias
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Snowball or Network Sampling
– This is a kind of convenience sampling that
involves subjects suggesting or referring other
subjects who meet the researcher’s eligibility
criteria
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Judgemental or Purposive Sampling
– Researcher select and studies a specific number of
special group that represents the target
population with regards to certain characteristics
such as age, sex or economic status
– Eg. Selecting deans of nursing colleges for nursing
education studies
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Cross-Cultural Sampling
– The study is conducted in a variety of cultural
settings.
– Eg. Getting sample from Ilocanos, Visayans,
Bicolanos, etc..
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Longitudinal Sampling
– A given group of subjects are studied for an
extended period of time, which can be:
• Prospective Sampling
– Mastectomy patients are studied from operaion to 3 years
after discharge
• Retrospective Sampling
– Growth of newborn 2 years ago to present
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Cross-sectional Sampling
– The subjects are observed at only one point in
time
– Eg. Asking high school students their choices of
career after graduation
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Quota Sampling
– The researcher identifies the strata of the
population and determines the proportion of
elements needed in the various segments of the
population.
 Steps in the research process
1. Formulation of the problem
a. Define source of topics
b. Define the purpose of research
c. Review related literature
d. Formulate the theoretical framework
e. Delineate the population to be studied
f. State the specific research problems
g. State the assumptions
h. State the scope and limitations of the problem
i. Define the terms to be used
 Steps in the research process
2. Formulation of the Hypothesis
a. State the hypothesis
b. Define the variables and how they will be
quantified.
3. Determining the research design or the
approach suitable for the study
4. Selection and development of the
tools/techniques for collecting data
5. Development of the data analysis plan
 Steps in the research process
6. Data collection
7. Organization and processing of data
8. Analysis and interpretation of the data
9. Formulation of conclusions and
recommendations
10. Writing of the research report
 Collection of data
• 3 basic methods
Observation
Questioning
Measurement

*** once the specific method and technique are

selected, the researcher then develops the tool
or instrument to gather data.
Characteristics of research instruments
• Reliability – refers to the accuracy or precision
of the tool.
• Validity – refers to the relationship of the
measurement to the study being done
• Sensitivity – means that the fine lines of
difference among the study subjects can be
determined from measurements
(thermometer, weighing scale, etc.)
Characteristics of research instruments
• Meaningfulness – means that the
measurement must have a practical
application
• Appropriate – if it is applicable to the subjects
being tested (questionnaire in English is not
appropriate to respondents who are non-high
school graduate)
• Pretest – is a trial that is developed to test the
hypothesis.
– This allows for necessary changes to be made in
the data collecting procedures.
purpose:
Reveal problems relating to organization,
administration, completion, and return
• Pilot study – is a preliminary small-scale trial
run of the research study, a testing not only of
research instruments but also of the sample
plan, the intervention and the study
procedures.
Purpose:
To improve the research process, and
To detect problem areas
 Collection of data
Data on the variables being studied can be
collected through:
a. Existing charts, statistics, records
b. Interview, participant observer, non-
participant observer
c. Self-recording data through questionnaire,
paper and pen method, mechanical
instruments
d. Combination method
• Several factors should be considered when
observing the study subjects:
a. Halo effect – the observer may have the
tendency to rate certain subjects as consistently
high or low on everything because of the overall
impression the subjects give the rater
b. Hawthorne effect – people may deliberately
change their behavior because they know they
are being studied or observed
 Ethical Issues in Nursing Research
• Ethics is the science that deals with the nature
of actions of intelligent beings in relation to
their moral qualities.
• The nurse’s desire for scientific knowledge
should be compatible with the dignity and
rights of individuals and social groups.
 Characteristics of Scientific Research
• Scientific objectivity – means being aware of
personal values and biases, not preconceiving
a study’s outcome or engaging in any acts of
bad faith, misconduct or fraud in doing
research.
 Characteristics of Scientific Research
• Cooperation – means that the proposal has
been reviewed and approved by the
appropriate review committee in the agency
or institution so that the subject’s rights may
be protected. The approval is given in writing.
 Characteristics of Scientific Research
• Integrity – means that the information
regarding possible discomforts and risks is not
withheld and that the researchers informed
the study subjects accordingly.
 Characteristics of Scientific Research
• Equitableness – means acknowledging the
contribution of others to the research done.

• Nobility – means that the researcher assumes

the responsibility of protecting the subjects
from harm, deceit, coercion, or invasion of
their right to privacy.
 Characteristics of Scientific Research
• Truthfulness – is reflected in the study’s
puprose, procedures, methods, and findings.

• Impeccability – means observance of

anonymity and confidentiality of data.
 Characteristics of Scientific Research
• Honesty – means disclosure of all funding
sources.

• Illumination – means that the research should

yield fruitful results.

• Courage – is needed to clarify publicly any

distortion that others may make of the
research findings.
 Basic Human Rights of Research
Subjects
1. Right to Informed Consent
2. Right to Refuse or withdraw from
participation
3. Right to Privacy
4. Right to Confidentiality and Anonymity of
data
5. Right to be protected from harm
 TIPS ON YOUR PROPOSAL (TITLE)
DEFENSE
• EVERYONE SHOULD PARTICIPATE (KNOW YOUR STUDY)
• EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW THE CONCEPTS OF
RESEARCH (MC Q IN Q&A)
• REHEARSE YOUR PRESENTATION 15-20MINS
• BE READY TO ANSWER: (FOR CHAP 1)
– WHY YOU COME UP WITH YOUR TITLE
– WHY DID YOU CHOOSE YOUR TITLE
– WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF YOUR STUDY OR WHAT
WILL BE THE OUTCOME OF YOUR STUDY OR HOW IT WILL
CONTRIBUTE TO THE NURSING PROFESSION
• CHAP 2
• WHY & HOW DID YOU CHOOSE YOUR
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• HOW IS THE THEORY RELATED TO YOUR
STUDY
• HOW DID YOU FORMULATE YOUR RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
• WHAT DO YOU WANT TO FIND OUT
• CHAP 3
• WHAT IS YOUR RESEARCH DESIGN
• WHY DO YOU THINK IT IS THE APPROPRIATE
RESEARCH DESIGN / SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
• WHERE WILL YOU CONDUCT THE STUDY
• WHO WILL BE YOUR RESPONDENTS
• WHO WILL VALIDATE YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE
 IMPORTANT
• PREPARE YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE
• WRITE THE ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
RELEVANT TO YOUR STUDY
• SAMPLE CONSENT
• SAMPLE LETTERS
• REFERENCES