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Energy utilization

• Reaction in the cell can be grouped into 2


categories:
– Anabolic reaction
A + B  AB [ +ΔG]
The synthesis of large molecules from smaller
Energy is used in this process  endergonic
– Catabolic reaction
AB  A + B [ -ΔG]
the breakdown of large molecules to smaller/simpler
molecules, which can be used for biosynthesis again
Energy was released in this process  exergonic
Note: not every catabolic reaction liberates energy
• Catabolism + anabolism  metabolism
Metabolism in heterotrophic organisms
The steps.
• Ingestion: taking food within the body (although
as the figure shows, it is still topologically in the
external world, not the internal).
• Digestion.
The enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of
– polysaccharides (e.g., starch) to sugars
– proteins to amino acids
– fats to fatty acids and glycerol
– nucleic acids to nucleotides
• Absorption into the body and transport to the
cells.
– Absorption into cells
• Within cells, these molecules are further degraded into
still simpler molecules containing two to four carbon
atoms. These fragments (acetyl-CoA for example) face
one of two alternatives:
– They may proceed up various metabolic pathways and serve as
the building blocks of, for example, sugars and fatty acids. From
these will be assembled the macromolecules of the cell:
• polysaccharides
• fats
• proteins
• nucleic acids
– Or the molecules in this pool of two- to four-carbon fragments
may be still further degraded - ultimately to simple inorganic
molecules such as carbon dioxide (CO2), H2O, and ammonia
(NH3).
• This phase of catabolism releases large amounts of energy (in the
form of ATP). One use to which this energy is put is to run the
anabolic activities of the cell.
• Catabolic reaction  yield energy
– Fermentation
C6H12O6  2CO2 + 2 C2H5OH
organic compound act as electron donor &
acceptor
– Aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
oxygen  terminal electron acceptor
– Anaerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 12KNO3 6CO2 + 6H2O + 12KNO3
inorganic compounds exclude O2  terminal
electron acceptor
Respiration
• Definition:
– Any process that liberates chemical energy
(ATP) when organic molecules are oxidized
– Oxidation of substrates (carbohydrates, fats,
proteins) to yield chemical energy
• Cell respiration  the process occurs
within cells
• Based on the requirement of oxygen:
– Aerobic respiration
– Anaerobic respiration:
ATP
• ATP is composed of:
– Adenine
– Ribose
– 3 phosphate groups
• Universal energy carrier  found in all living
cells
• ADP may be rephosphorylated to ATP p 323:
– Respiratory activity
– In the muscle cells
– Photo-phosphorylation
Biological oxidation
• Direct oxidation by molecular oxygen
A + O2  AO2
• Dehidrogenation
AH2 + B  A + BH2
• Electron transfer
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e-

 Aerobic respiration
Substrates in respiration:
• Carbohydrates: starch/glycogen  
glucose
– Glucose as substrate oxidation can be
divided into 3 phases:
• Glycolysis (the Embden Meyerhof Pathway) 
cytoplasm
• Oxidative decarboxylation (Krebs/TCA cycle) 
matrix mitochondrion
• Oxidative phosphorilation  cristae
• Fats  β-oxidation
• Proteins  transamination, deamination
• Acetyl-CoA is generated in the
mitochondria primarily from two sources:
– the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) reaction
– fatty acid oxidation
ATP yield in aerobic respiration

Stage in Aerobic ATP Produced ATP Used NADH + H+ FADH2 produced


Respiration produced

Glycolysis 4 2 2 0

Link Reaction 0 0 2 0

Krebs Cycle 2 0 6 2

Electron Transport 30(NADH +H+) - - -


System 4(FADH2)

Total 40 2 10 2
Regulation of the PDH Complex

Pyruvate + CoA + NAD+ ------>


CO2 + acetyl-CoA + NADH +
H+
The reactions of the
PDH complex serves
to interconnect the
metabolic pathways
of glycolysis,
gluconeogenesis and
fatty acid synthesis to
the TCA cycle.
Krebs cycle
Acetyl coenzyme A from Link Reaction is
used to make:

3 molecules of NAD+ reduced to NADH + H+


1 molecule of FAD reduced to FADH2
2 molecules of CO2
1 molecule of ATP by phosphorylation
Oxaloacetate is regenerated to start cycle
again

• For each glucose molecule, Krebs Cycle


turns twice as 1 Glucose molecule = 2
Pyruvate molecules

• The most important part of the Krebs
Cycle is the release of hydrogen ions to
be used in the Electron Transport System
for generation of ATP

Occur in matrix mitochondrion


Electron Transport System
• Occurs on the inner membrane of mitochondrion (crista)
• Converts energy in form of hydrogen to ATP

• The hydrogen ions received from the Krebs Cycle are attached to hydrogen
carriers (NAD and FAD) which are reduced.

• As reduced NAD and FAD are passed along the electron transport chain,
the hydrogens are removed and the hydrogen atoms split into:
Hydrogen ion – H+ (proton)
Electron – e-

• At the end of the system, the hydrogen ions and electrons recombine and
are then used to reduce oxygen to form water.

Oxidative Phosphorylation
• The formation of ATP through the oxidation of hydrogen atoms
Anaerobic respiration
• Glucose  2 piruvic acids
– In animals:
• 2 piruvic acids  2 lactic acids
– In plants:
• 2 piruvic acids  2 CO2↑ + 2 ethanal  2 ethanol
Energy conversion efficiency:
• Aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O +38 ATP ΔG=-2880kJ/mol
efficiency= 38 x -30.6 =40.37%
-2880
• Anaerobic respiration
– Yeast:
C6H12O6  2CO2 + 2 C2H5OH +2 ATP ΔG=-210kJ/mol
efficiency= 2 x -30.6 =29.14%
-210
– muscle
C6H12O6  2 CH3CHOHCOOH + 2 ATP ΔG=-150kJ/mol
efficiency= 2 x -30.6 =40.80%
-150
• Kiri
1. Tuliskan reaksi respirasi anaerob pada
yeast
2. hitung ATP yang dihasilkan dan berapa
% efisiensi konversi energinya
• Kanan
1. Tuliskan reaksi respirasi aerob
2. Hitung ATP yang dihasilkan dan berapa
% efisiensi konversi energinya
Kanan
• Aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O +38 ATP ΔG=-2880kJ/mol
efficiency= 38 x -30.6 =40.37%
-2880
Kiri
• Anaerobic respiration
– Yeast:
C6H12O6  2CO2 + 2 C2H5OH +2 ATP ΔG=-210kJ/mol
efficiency= 2 x -30.6 =29.14%
-210
Jika terdapat 2 mol glukosa, berapa ATP
yang dihasilkan dan berapa % efisiensi
konversi energinya pada kondisi (kanan &
kiri). Sebutkan tahapan & tempat proses
oksidasinya
• Kanan:
aerob,
• Kiri
anaerob
Kanan
• Aerobic respiration
2C6H12O6 + 12O2 12CO2 + 12H2O +76 ATP ΔG=-5760kJ/mol
efficiency= 76 x -30.6 =40.37%
-5760
• Glycolysis (the Embden Meyerhof Pathway)  cytoplasm
• Oxidative decarboxylation (Krebs/TCA cycle)  matrix mitochondrion
• Oxidative phosphorilation  cristae

Kiri
• Anaerobic respiration
– Yeast:
2C6H12O6  4CO2 + 4C2H5OH +4 ATP ΔG=-420kJ/mol
efficiency= 4 x -30.6 =29.14%
-420
• Glycolysis (the Embden Meyerhof Pathway)  cytoplasm

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