INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

Locating SURFACE and SUB SURFACE DEFECTS in

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

When FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL is magnetized, SURFACE

AND SUB-SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES that are MAINLY
PERPENDICULAR to the magnetic flux line will produce a
MAGNETIC LEAKAGE FIELD that will attract and form a VISIBLE
INDICATION

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* Applicable only to : Ferromagnetic materials - Iron, Cobalt,
Nickel and their magnetic alloys.

* Detection sensitivity diminishes rapidly with depth.

* If the flaw is deeper, it must be larger to produce indication.

* Deeper flaws produce broad and fuzzy indication which

require careful interpretation.

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The method involves three essential steps:

a) Magnetizing the material or part under test

b) Applying the ferromagnetic particles over the surface

c) Examining the surface for powder pattern or indication

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Advantages:

a) It is the best method and most reliable method available for finding
surface and sub-surface cracks, especially very fine and shallow ones

b) It is rapid and simple to operate

c) The indications are produced directly on the surface of the part

d) Operators can learn the method easily

e) There is little or no limitation due to size or shape of the part being

tested

f) It will detect cracks filled with foreign material

g) Surface preparation is not as rigid as in the case of penetrant testing

h) It will work well through the coating of part

i) It is relatively low in operational costs

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Limitations:

a) It does not work on non-ferromagnetic materials

b) As the magnetic flux lines should be almost perpendicular to the

discontinuities, many times more than one magnetic field has to
be applied to the part

c) Parts have to be demagnetized after testing

d) Post-cleaning, to remove remnants of the magnetic particles

clinging to the surface, may sometimes be required after testing
and demagnetizing

e) Sometimes, the geometry of the part is a limitation i.e. how to

apply the magnetizing force to produce a field in a proper
direction in the matter of speculation
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ELECTRICITY

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 ELECTRICITY

Electricity is a term used to describe the energy produced (usually to

perform work) when electrons are caused to directional (not randomly)
flow from atom to atom

This movement of electrons between atoms is called electrical current

Electrical current is measured in units of amperes or "amps"

One amp is defined as 6.28 x 1018 electrons per second

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VOLTAGE

Voltage is the electrical force that causes free electrons to

move from one atom to another

Just as water needs some pressure to force it through a pipe,

electrical current needs some force to make it flow.

"Volts" is the measure of "electrical pressure" that causes

current flow. Voltage is sometimes referred to as the measure
of a potential difference between two points along a
conductor.

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 RESISTANCE

Electrical resistance is defined as the resistance to flow of electricity

through a material.

Resistance can also be considered a measurement of how tightly a

material holds onto its electrons. For example, common resistance
elements in a circuit are lights, motors, and electrical resistance
heaters.

The electrical resistance of a material is measured in units called

"ohms". The lower the resistance of a material, the better the
material acts as a conductor

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ALTERNATING CURRENT(AC)

AC is the most widely used power source for conducting Magnetic

Particle Testing (MPT)

AC can be readily converted to the low voltages using in MPT by the

use of transformers

AC has little penetrating power and provides best detection of surface

discontinuities (Skin effect). It is not effective for subsurface

Since AC is continuously reversing direction, the magnetic field has a

tendency to agitate or make iron particles more mobile
current

Time

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DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

Current flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage

DC can be provided by using rectifiers to convert AC to DC by

batteries or direct current generators

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MAGNETISM

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MAGNETISM

All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons,

neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the
atom's nucleus and the electrons are in constant motion around the
nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge and produce a
magnetic field as they move through space. A magnetic field is
produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of
this field is called the magnetic moment.

When the electrons (electric current) are flowing through the conductor, a
magnetic field forms around theDestructive
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 MAGNETIC POLES
The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where
there is a change in energy within that volume. This change in energy
can be detected and measured.

The location where a magnetic field can be detected exiting or entering a

material is called a magnetic pole.

Magnetic poles have never been detected in isolation but always occur
in pairs and, thus, the name dipole.

Therefore, a dipole is an object that has a magnetic pole on one end

and a second equal but opposite magnetic pole on the other.

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MAGNETIC DOMAINS
An object is magnetized when part or all of its magnetic domains have
their north and south poles oriented (or) aligned

Unmagnetized material

Magnetized material

This can be done by placing the material in a strong external

magnetic field or by passing electrical current through the material.

The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in
the material
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Ferromagnetic materials have domains. Domains are smallest known
permanent magnets. A domain has one South and one North pole. When the
poles are aligned under the influence of an external magnetic field, the
material behave as a magnet and attracts other ferromagnetic materials.
When all domains are aligned, the material becomes magnetically saturated.
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BSS Non Destructive Testing
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Magnetic lines of force around a Bar Magnet revealed by
sprinkling iron powders around the magnet. Dense lines
indicate strong magnetic field.
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MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
When all of the magnetic domains lined up, the magnetic bar
develops a total force equal to sum of all of the magnetic domains

These are Magnetic Lines of Force which form a closed loop or

circuit. These are imaginary lines used to illustrate and describe
the pattern

All of the lines of force make up the Magnetic Field

The magnetic lines of force are assumed to

emanate from the north pole of a magnet,
pass through surrounding space, and enter
the south pole. The lines of force then travel
inside the magnet from the south pole to the
north pole, thus completing a closed
loop
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MAGNETIC ATTRACTION AND REPULSION

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They seek the path of least resistance between PROPERTIES OF
opposite magnetic poles. In a single bar magnet MAGNETIC LINE
as shown to the right, they attempt to form OF FORCE
closed loop from pole to pole.

They never cross one another.

They all have the same strength.

Their density decreases (they spread out) when

they move from an area of higher permeability to
an area of lower permeability.

Their density decreases with increasing distance

from the poles.

They are considered to have direction as if

flowing, though no actual movement occurs.
They flow from the south pole to the north pole
within the material and northBSS
pole toDestructive
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MAGNETIC FLUX
The force that attracts other magnetizable materials to the magnetic
poles is known as Magnetic Flux

Magnetic Flux is made up of all of the lines of force. The lines of force
are always closed loops.

FLUX DENSITY – or INDUCTION is usually designated in

“GAUSS” units and refers to the FLUX-PER-UNIT-AREA at right
angles to the direction of flux

The horseshoe magnet will attract other magnetizable material only

where the lines of force leave or enter the magnet

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Magnetic Field Strength :

Magnetic field is produced by Magnetic lines of force.

* Lines of force is known as Flux.

* Unit of flux is weber.
* 1 line of flux is 1 weber.
* Flux per unit area is flux density and is measured in
Gauss.
* 1 Gauss is 1 line of flux per sq Cm.
* 104 Gauss is 1 Tesla [ 108 lines per sq meter ]

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If a magnet is bent into a complete loop as shown, the magnetic field
is entirely within, thus no external force

However, a crack in the circular magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of
force and create a Flux Leakage

Leakage fields (Flux Leakage) are actually magnetic lines of force

that leave the part and pass through air from one pole to the other of
opposite polarity
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Whenever the leakage field is forced out of the part, iron
particles would be attracted showing an indication of a discontinuity

Even some subsurface discontinuities may be detected if the

leakage field is strong enough

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Magnetic flux in a magnetized part pass through the body of the
part. Discontinuities at or near the surface of the part disturb the
normal flow of magnetic flux and leakage flux fields are
produced on the surface above the discontinuities. These
leakage fields attract iron particles and are detected by applying
iron powders.
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 Principle of MPI : Flux Leakage
No Defect Defect

N S N S

Lines of flux follow the path of least resistance

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 Visibility of Flux Leakage

• Depth of defect
• Orientation of defect shape of defect
• Size of defect
• Permeability of material

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 Depth below surface

N S N S

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Surface discontinuities produce strong leakage field, which
produces sharp indications, which are easy to recognize.
Sub surface discontinuities produce wide and fuzzy indications,
which are difficult to recognize as the depth of the
discontinuities increases. Thus there is a loss of sensitivity with
increasing depth from the
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 Defect Orientation

Defect at 90 degrees to flux : maximum indication

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 Defect Orientation

>45 Degrees to Flux: Acceptable indication

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 Defect Orientation

<45 Degrees to Flux :Unacceptable indication

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Flaw orientation to the magnetic field :

magnetic field 45 - 900 to the major dimension of the flaw produces leakage
field. Field parallel to the flaw does not produce leakage field.
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Field direction for flaw detection :
To produce a leakage field, magnetic field must intercept between 450 to 900
to the major dimension of the flaw.

• A 900 magnetic field

produces stronger
indication.
• A 450 magnetic field
produces weaker
indication.
• A parallel magnetic
field produces no
leakage and no
indication.

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Magnetizing direction :
Ideal magnetic field direction is
900 to the major dimension of
the discontinuity. BSS Non Destructive Testing
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Magnetizing direction

A longitudinal magnetic field will detect the crack on this weld.

Circular field may produce very weak or no indication.

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 Defect Orientation
Test 1 Test 2

Defects

Defects Defects
FIELD

Defects

MPI requires 2 tests at 90o to one another

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 All surface defects form indications

But not all indications are caused by defects

Non-relevant indications Spurious indications

Due to flux leakage but Not due to flux
arising from design leakage
features • Lint
• Changes in section • Scale
• Changes in • Dirt
permeability • Hairs
• Grain boundaries • Magnetic writing
• Forging flow linesBSS Non Destructive Testing
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 Magnetized Particles applied

Leakage field produced by tight cracks are indicated by accumulation of

colored dry particles.

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Flaw depth to width ratio for good detection sensitivity
flaws should be deeper than the opening.

• For detection sensitivity, the depth of the flaw should be at least 3 times
deeper than the surface roughness of the part.
• For good detection sensitivity the ratio of
width: depth: length should be : 1 : 5 : 10
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Test Process :

1. A suitable technique of magnetization is chosen.

2. The part is magnetized in the desired direction.
3. While the magnetizing field is present, iron powders
are applied dry or wet.
4. Iron powders bridge the leakage fields, if present, to produce
indications.
5. Powder patterns produced by flaws are identified and
accept reject decision is made.

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TEMPORAY MAGNETS

Temporary magnets are those which act like a permanent magnet

when they are within a strong magnetic field, but lose their
magnetism when the magnetic field disappears. Examples would
be paperclips and nails and other soft iron items.

Temporary magnets are made of such materials as iron and nickel.

The materials are known as soft magnetic materials because they
usually do not retain their magnetism outside a strong magnetic
field

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PERMANENT MAGNETS & ELECROMAGNET

Permanent magnet will retain or keep their magnetic properties

for a very long time.

Permanent magnets are made by placing pieces of iron cobalt,

and nickel into strong magnetic fields. Permanent magnets are
mixtures of iron, nickel, or cobalt with other elements. These are
known as hard magnetic materials

An electromagnet is a tightly wound helical coil of

wire, usually with an iron core, which acts like a
permanent magnet when current is flowing in the
wire. The strength and polarity of the magnetic field
created by the electromagnet are adjustable by
changing the magnitude of the current flowing
through the wire and by changing the direction of the
current flow.
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FERRO, PARA AND DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative

susceptibility to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic materials are
slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not retain
the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
(COPPER, SIVER, GOLD, MERCURY, BISMUTH AND ZINC)

Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to

magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic
field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when
the external field is removed. (MAGNESIUM, MOLYBDENUM,
LITHIUM ,TANTALUM, ALUMINIUM AND PLATINUM)

Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive

susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a strong
attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic
properties after the external field has been removed. (IRON,
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COBALT ,NICKEL AND GADOLINIUM)
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ELECTROMAGNETISM

When an electric current passes through a conductor, a magnetic

field is formed around a conductor.

If the conductor has a uniform shape, the density of the field –

number of lines of force per unit area – is uniform at any point
along the conductor, and it uniformly decreases as the from the
electrical conductor increases
Direction of the magnetic field (line of force) is at a 90 deg
angle to that of the current in the conductor.

RIGHTBSS Non Destructive

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 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR

When the electric current is flowing through a conductor, such as rod,

an encircling magnetic field is established both within and outside
the conductor

The strength of the field is directly proportional to the current flow and
inversely proportional to the distance perpendicular to the axis of the
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 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A SOLENOID

Solenoids are coils where length is greater than the diameter

When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to

form a coil, a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of
the loop or coil along longitudinal axis and circles back around the
outside of the loop or coil.

The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing
current but also with each loop
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PROPERTIES

PERMEABILITY (µ) - Ease with which a magnetic flux is established

RELUCTANCE – Opposition of a magnetic material to the

establishment of a magnetic flux. A material with High permeability
will have low reluctance

RESIDUAL MAGNETISM - Amount of magnetism retained after

the magnetizing force is removed

RETENTIVITY – Ability of the material to retain a certain amount of

residual magnetism

COERCIVE FORCE – Reverse magnetizing force necessary to

remove the residual magnetism from the part
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 Permeability
• The ease with which a material can be
magnetised

• Opposite of reluctance (difficulty with

which a material can be magnetised)

• Represented by the symbol μ

• μ=B/H

• Measured in Henries / metre

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 Permeability

• Paramagnetics Slightly > 1

• Diamagnetics Slightly < 1
• Ferromagnetics 240 +

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If a piece of HIGH CARBON STEEL were placed in a magnetizing field

It would have LOW PERMEABLILITY because it would be hard to

magnetize

It would be HIGHLY RELUCTANT to accept a magnetic flux because

of high carbon content

It would have a HIGH RESIDUAL MAGNETIC FIELD. The high

carbon steel is reluctant to accept a magnetic flux but is also reluctant
to give it up once it has been accepted

It would be HIGH RETENTIVE of the magnetic field that it has accepted

It would take a HIGH COERCIVE FORCE to remove the residual

magnetism from the high carbon steel part
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Magnetizing Current :
Types of current used to magnetize a part are ;

Alternating Current

Half wave rectified Direct Current

Full wave rectified Direct Current

Three phase rectified Direct Current

[ for generating very high currents > 3000 amps ]

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Alternating Current [ AC ] :

This is the common supply current to the Industry. This current continuously
reverses direction [ Positive and Negative transition ] hence it is known as
alternating current.

When a part is magnetized by alternating current, the magnetic field remains

near the surface. This is known as SKIN EFFECT

For 50 Cycles AC, field penetration is within 1 mm. Hence, alternating

Current is used for detection of surface flaws only and provides maximum
sensitivity for such flaws in combination
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Alternating current is extensively used for demagnetization of parts.
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Alternating current is used when the detection of surface discontinuities
is required. This is most often applied on parts that have been in
service and may have some type of cracking due to fatigue or stress
corrosion.

This is not a good method for detection of subsurface discontinuities.

Alternating current creates a rapid reversal of the magnetic field. This in
turn creates mobility for the particles applied on the surface of the
part. This mobility allows more particles to be attracted at the point
of flux leakage which in most cases is a crack-related defect.

This is due to skin effect which concentrates the magnetic field on the
surface of the part.

Skin effect is the crowding of magnetic flux or electric current

outward and away from the center of the part.

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Another advantage of alternating current is that the magnetizing
effect is determined by the value of the peak current at the top of the
sine wave. This is 1.41 times the current indicated on the meter. In
other words, alternating current meters read the average rather
than the peak current.

In order to obtain the same current values when using either DC or

HWDC, more powerful and expensive equipment is needed to
achieve the same results AC produces.

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Half wave rectified Direct Current [ HWDC ] :

When alternating current is rectified, the negative transition is blocked

and current flows in one direction only. This is current known as HWDC.

HWDC penetrates deeper in the part and is used for detection of surface
and sub-surface defects.

HWDC is pulsating in nature and is very suitable for detection of deeper

defects using dry particles. Dry particles are vibrated and therefore are
easily attracted to any type of
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Full wave rectified Direct Current [ FWDC ] :

When the negative transition is inverted to positive transition by

rectification, all the current flow in one direction only. This current known
as FWDC and is used for generating very high currents
[ > 6000 amps ].

FWDC penetrates deeper in the part but is not pulsating, hence this
current is less suitable for use with dry particles.

FWDC is used for detection BSS Non Destructive

of surface and Testing
sub-surface defects.
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 B + Flux Density
Hysteresis Loop
Each type of ferromagnetic material has a
maximum flux density when a magnetizing
force is applied.

Flux density is defined as the total number

of lines of force per unit area.
H- H+
The picture on the right shows a Magnetizing Force
correlation between flux density and
magnetizing force.

Flux density is assigned the letters B+

and B-.

Magnetizing force is assigned the

letters H+ and H-. B-

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HYSTERESIS LOOP (B/H CURVE)

At each increase of the force ”H” there is an increase in flux density

“B” until the SATURATION POINT is reached
The dashed line aboveBSS
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Non Destructive shows the MAXIMUM FLUX
DENSITY and is often referredPvt.Ltd.
to as the VIRGIN CURVE
 Ability of the steel to retain a certain amount of
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM is called RETENTIVITY

COERCIVE FORCE is the reverse magnetizing FORCE REQUIRED TO

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REMOVE RESIDUAL MAGNETISM Pvt.Ltd.from the material
A hysteresis loop is completed with each cycle of alternating current.
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HYSTERESIS LOOP gets its name from the LAG BETWEEN the
applied MAGNETIZING FORCE and the actual FULX DENSITY in
the part BSS Non Destructive Testing
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 A WIDE HYSTERESIS LOOP
indicates a material that is
difficult to magnetize (one
with a high reluctance)

A HARD STEEL would have the following qualities

1. Low Permeablity – Hard to magnatize

2. High Retentivity – Retains a strong residual magnetic field
3. High Coercive Force – Requires a high reverse magnetizing force to
remove the residual magnetism

4. High reluctance - High resistance to magnetizing force

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5. High Residual Magnetism – Retains
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 A THIN HYSTERESIS LOOP
indicates a material that of
LOW RETENTIVITY

A SOFT OR LOW CARBON STEEL would have the following qualities

1. High Permeablity – Easy to magnatize

2. Low Retentivity – Retains a weak residual magnetic field
3. Low Coercive Force – Requires a low reverse magnetizing force to
remove the residual magnetism

4. Low reluctance - Low resistance to magnetizing force

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5. Low Residual Magnetism – Retains
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END

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