Distillation

• Distillation is a kind of seperation technique of

two or more volatile liquid compunds by
using the difference in boiling points and
relative volatility.
• The process takes place in a column, and two
heat exchangers.
• In the column two phases, liquid and gas, are
distributed to enrich the vapor in more
volatile compounds and enrich the liquid
phase on less volatile compounds.
• Mass transfer is the key to a successful
distillation.
Simple or batch or differential distillation
 The Rayleigh Equation

e for the still: see the Figure below

les of liquid originally in still
s of liquid remained in still
quid composition in still (mole fraction of A)
id composition in still (mole fraction A)
the amount of liquid in the still is L, with mole fraction of A in the liquid bein
ifferential time (t + dt) , a small amount of vapour dL is produced, and the
A in the vapour is y (mole fraction). The vapour I
 in equilibrium  with the residue liquid.The amount of liquid in the still is
om L to (L - dL), while the liquid composition changed from x to (x - dx).

Performing a material balance on A:

Initial amount in still = Amount left in still + Amount vaporized
We have,
xL = ( x - dx ) ( L - dL ) + y dL
xL = xL - x dL - L dx + dx dL + y dL
Neglecting the term dx dL, the equation reduces to:
L dx = y dL - x dL
Re-arranging gives the following:

Integrating from L1 to L2, and from x1 to x2, we obtain

the Rayleigh Equation :
 Steam distillation

The boiling point of pure water ( 100 ° C ) and for

phenylamine ( 184 ° C ).
At 98 ° C, the saturated vapour pressures of the two pure
liquids are :
Phenylamine : 7 . 07 kPa Normal atmospheric pressure is 101 . 325 k
Water : 94 . 3kPa
 vacuum distillation

Steam distillation Steam distillation with vacuum

point - composition diagram for a mixture of two liquids at atmospheric
iagram for a mixture of two liquids )

If you boil a liquid mixture C1, you will get a vapour with composition C2, which you
can condense to give a liquid of that same composition (the pale blue lines).
If you reboil that liquid C2, it will give a vapour with composition C3. Again you
can condense that to give a liquid of the same new composition (the red lines).
Reboiling the liquid C3 will give a vapour still richer in the more volatile
component B (the green lines). You can see that if you were to do this once or twice
more, you would be able to collect a liquid which was virtually pure B.
The secret of getting the more volatile component from a mixture of liquids is
obviously to do a succession of boiling-condensing-reboiling operations.
Packed tower
Fractional Distillation 
 Stacked rashig ring (top view)

Packed tower
 Equipment Designs

• Plate Columns (Tray

Columns)
• Packed Beds
 Plate Columns (Tray
Columns)
• It is the most widely used kind of
distillation column.
• Trays are shaped to maximize the
liquid-vapor contact and
increase the mass transfer area.
• Tray types include sieve, bubble
cap and valve.
liquid

vapor
 Advantages &
Disadvantages
Advantages
  Disadvantages
• Least expensive colum • Higher pressure drops
for diameters greater than packed columns
than 0.6m • Foaming can occur
• The liquid-vapor contact because the liquid is
in the plate columns is agitated by the vapor
more effective than in flowing up through it.
packed columns.
• Cooling coils can be
easily added to the
plate column
• Can handle high liquid
flow rates.
 Packed Beds
• Packings can be provided into 3 types:
 1. random/dumped, 2. regular/stacked and 3.
structured/ordered.


• Random/Dumped packing constitutes of bulk inert materials.

Random packings are simply dumped into the tower during
installation and allowed to fall at random.

•
• Stacked packing: stacked by hand

•
• Structured packing: ordered geometry. Generally made of
perforated corrugated metal, with adjacent sheets arranged so
that liquid liquids spread over their surfaces while vaporflows
through channels formed by corrugations.


• Important criteria for packing required are : large interfacial

S ta cke d ra sh ig rin g
( top view )
 Advantages &
Disadvantages
• When the • Can break during
diameter is less installation or due
than 0.6m it is to thermal
less expensive expansion.
than the plate • Not cost efficient for
column. high liquid flow
• Packing is able to rates.
handle • Contact efficiencies
corrosive are decreased
materials. when the liquid
flow rate is too
• Lower pressure low.
drop than in
plate columns.
• Good for
Packed tower
Fractional Distillation 
 Stacked rashig ring (top view)

Packed tower
 XYStage
Y2
211
Stage?

A device where
-- 2 phases are brought into intimate contact
- mass transfer takes place between 2 phases leading to bring them to eqm.
- the phases are separated after mass transfer takes place

Sufficient time  eqm.

Eqm. Stage = theoretical stage = ideal stage

y2 − y1
e efficiency : fractional approach to eqm. which a real stage η= *
produces
y2 − y1
 Distillation is a kind of separation technique of two or more
volatile liquid compounds by using the difference in boiling
points and relative volatility.

Vapor liquid equilibrium

yA
vapor pressure of A
α AB =
xA
yB
= relative volatility = PA /PB =
xB vapor pressure of B
à Numerical measure of the ease with which the components may be separated
àα AB = 1, separation is not possible

For binary mixtures: x B = 1 -x A ; yB =

1 -y A

αx
y= = PA / PB = equilibrium relation
1 + (α − 1) x
L n-1 , X n-1 V n, Y n

Stage n 1
2

L n, X n V n+1 , Y n+1
1 F = B+D
Ln DxD 2
FxF = BxB + DxD
yn +1 = xn +
Ln + D Ln + D

CONSTANT MOLAL OVERFLOW

L flow returned as reflux

RD = =
D flow of top product taken off

Lm BxB L BxB
RD x ym +1 = xm − ym +1 = xm −
yn +1 = xn + D Lm − B Lm − B L−B L−B
RD + 1 RD + 1
 Operating Lines
 From steady state Written in terms of the
L
material balances: Reflux Ratio:
RD =
D
Rectifying section: Rectifying section:

 Ln DxD 
RD xD
yn +1 = xn + yn +1 = xn +
 Ln + D Ln + D 
RD + 1 RD + 1
Stripping section:
Stripping section:



Lm BxB L BxB

ym +1 = xm − ym +1 = xm −
Lm − B Lm − B L−B L−B



 1
1 2

1
2

L n-1 , X n-1 V n, Y n

Stage n

L n, X n V n+1 , Y n+1
 ition of feed = moles of liquid flow in the strippin
ults from introduction of each moles of feed

V = V + (1 − q ) F V − V = (1 − q) F 2

L V
Vyn +1 = Ln xn + DxD 3

F  Feed plate V ym +1 = L xm − BxB 4

L
y m +1 =y n +1 =y
V At intersection :
xm =xn =x
L = L + qF
3 – 4 
L − L = qF 1
 q   xF 
y = −   x +  
 1− q   1− q 
q - line equation or
Equation for feed line
 The value of q for cold - liquid feed is found from the equation

c pL (Tb − TF )
q = 1+
λ
The value of q when the feed is superheated vapor :

c pV (TF − Td )
q=−
λ
  q   xF 
y = −   x +  
 1− q   1− q 

q = 0 (saturated vapour)
q = 1 (saturated liquid)
0 < q < 1 (mix of liquid and vapour)
q > 1 (subcooled liquid)
q < 0 (superheated vapour)
 Construction Lines for McCabe-
Thiele Method
y RD xD
yn +1 = xn +
Equilibrium
Rectifying Section: RD + 1 RD + 1
Operating line
curve
q-line  q   xF 
yN y = −  x +  
 1 − q   1 − q 
Stripping Section:
L BxB
ym +1 = xm −
yB Operating line
45° line
L−B L−B
Distillation Total condenser
xB X=xF xD
Overhead vapor Reflux drum
q=1 q>1 1 Distillate
Reflux
Rectifying section stages 2
0<q<1 L L*
L+V x=y Feed
f Feed Stage

V Stripping section stages Boilup

q=0 N
Partial reboiler
q<0 V*
Bottoms
X=xF Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 37
 Distillation is a kind of separation technique of two or more
volatile liquid compounds by using the difference in boiling
points and relative volatility.

Vapor liquid equilibrium

yA
vapor pressure of A
α AB =
xA
yB
= relative volatility = PA /PB =
xB vapor pressure of B
à Numerical measure of the ease with which the components may be separated
àα AB = 1, separation is not possible

For binary mixtures: x B = 1 -x A ; yB =

1 -y A

αx
y= = PA / PB = equilibrium relation
1 + (α − 1) x
 Minimum Reflux for
McCabe-Thiele Equilibrium
curve

y ( xD , xD )
( xq , y q )
yN xD − yq Rmin
=
xD − xq Rmin + 1

xB
By returning no exiting vapor as reflux
and no exiting liquid as boilup the
operating line intersection is as far to
the left as equilibrium allows.
xF xD
Although this is the minimum amount
of reflux, it takes infinite stages (note
the pinch point between the operating
lines and equilibrium).

In actual practice :
1 . 2 R m < R actual <1.5 Rm
39
 αx
onstruction for the McCabe-Thiele =
Method
y = PA / PB
1 + (α − 1) x
1. Step 1: Plot equilibrium curve and 45 degree line.
equilibrium 2. equilibrium
curve curve Step 2: Plot given compositions (F, B, and D)
45° line Step 3: Draw q-line from LF and VF
y y Step 4: Determine Rmin from intersection of the
rectifying section OL and the equilibrium curve.
Step 5: Determine R from R/Rmin
45° line Step 6: Draw OL for Rectifying section
Step 7: Draw OL for Stripping section
xB x=zF xD
x

5. and 6. 7.
3. 4.
equilibrium equilibrium equilibrium
equilibrium
curve curve curve
curve

y y y y

xB xD xB x=zF xD xB x=zF xD xB x=zF xD

x=zF
In actual practice :
Rmin /(Rmin +1) R/(R+1)
1 . 2 R m < R actual <1.5 R
RD x
yn +1 = xn + D
RD + 1 RD + 1 40
L n-1 , X n-1 V n, Y n

Y n , X n-1
Stage n Y n+1 , X n

Y n+1 , X n-+1
L n, X n V n+1 , Y n+1
 Determination of number of stages
Equilibrium
curve
Construction:
( x1 , y1 ) 1 Step 1: Plot equilibrium curve and 45 degree line.
Step 2: Plot given compositions (F, B, and D)
( xD , y D ) Step 3: Draw q-line from LF and VF
y ( x2 , y 2 ) 2
Step 4: Determine Rmin from intersection of the
Rectifying section OL and the equilibrium curve.
yN
( x3 , y3 ) Step 5: Determine R from R/Rmin
3 Step 6: Draw OL for Rectifying section
Step 7: Draw OL for Stripping section

4 Solution:
Step 1: From xD locate x1 and y1 drawing a horizontal line
to the equilibrium condition for stage 1.
yB Step 2: Find y2 drawing a vertical line to the rectifying OL
locate the mass balance condition between x1 and y2.
xB xD Step 3: From y2 draw a horizontal line to the equilibrium
X=xF
condition for stage 2 to locate x2.

ØTotal number of ideal stage: 3.6 ~ 4

42
 Optimum Feed Location by McCabe-
Thielemethod
Equilibrium
curve

y 2 The feed plate is always represented by a trian

that has one corner on rectifying line and one
corner on the stripping line
yN
3

yB

xB xD
X=xF

Ø Feed should be introduced on 2nd plate from the top

ØTotal number of ideal stage: 3.6 ~ 4
Ø a reboilerand 3 ideal plates (assumed a total condenser)

43
Minimum Number of Stages for
McCabe-Thiele Equilibrium
curve

y
At total reflux:
2

R = ∞
yN

yB

xB x=zF xD

By returning all the exiting vapor as reflux Although this is the minimum number of
and all the exiting liquid as boilup the stages, no product is produced (note the feed
operating lines have slope of one. must then go to zero).

44
 Minimum Reflux for
McCabe-Thiele Equilibrium
curve

y ( xD , y D )
( xq , y q )
yN xD − yq Rmin
=
xD − xq Rmin + 1

yB

xB x=zF xD

By returning no exiting vapor as reflux Although this is the minimum amount

and no exiting liquid as boilup the of reflux, it takes infinite stages (note
operating line intersection is as far to the pinch point between the operating
the left as equilibrium allows. lines and equilibrium).

45
 The optimum reflux ratio is defined as that
reflux ratio at
which the total annual operating cost is
minimum In actual practice :
= 1 . 05 to 1 . 3 R m McCabe Coulson
opt 1 . 2 R m < R opt <1.5 Rm
 Example: Determination of N
Given:
and xB for McCabe-Thiele
100 Kmol/hr of a feed of 60% benzene and 40% heptane is to be separated by distillation. The distillate is to be 90% benzene and
The bottoms 10% benzene. The feed enters the column as 30mol% vapor. Use R 1.5 times the minimum. Assume a constant relative
Volatility of ∝ of 4 and that the pressure is constant throughout the column at 1atm.

Construction:
Step 1: Plot equilibrium curve and 45 degree line.
1 The equilibrium curve is found using:
0.9 αx
y=
0.8 1 + x (α − 1)
0.7 Step 2: Plot given compositions (F, B, and D)
Step 3: Draw q-line from LF and VF. Use
0.6
L − L L + LF − L LF
y 0.5 q= = = = 0.7
F F F
0.4
to find q. Then plot the q-line using:
0.3
 q   z 
0.2 y=  x −  F  = −2.333x + 2
0.1
 q − 1  q −1

0 Step 4: Determine Rmin from intersection of the

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 rectifying section OL and the equilibrium curve.
This happens at a slope of about .25
x
Rmin
0.25 = ⇒ Rmin = 0.333
Lecture 13: McCabe-TheileR
min + 1 47
 Example: Determination of N
Given:
and xB for McCabe-Thiele
100 Kmol/hr of a feed of 60% benzene and 40% heptane is to be separated by distillation. The distillate is to be 90% benzene and
The bottoms 10% benzene. The feed enters the column as 30mol% vapor. Use R 3 times the minimum. Assume a constant relative
Volatility of ∝ of 4 and that the pressure is constant throughout the column at 1atm.

Construction:
Step 5: From Rmin =0.333 and R=3Rmin we have R=1
And the slope of rectifying section OL is 0.5
1 Step 6: Draw the line with slope 0.5 which is the rectifying
0.9 section OL.
Step 7. Draw the stripping section operating line from the
0.8 Bottoms composition to the intersection of the rectifying section
OL and the q-line.
0.7

0.6 Solution:
y 0.5 Step 1: From xD locate x1 and y1 drawing a horizontal line
to the equilibrium condition for stage 1.
0.4 Step 2: Find y2 drawing a vertical line to the rectifying OL
0.3 locate the mass balance condition between x1 and y2.
Step 3: From y2 draw a horizontal line to the equilibrium
0.2
condition for stage 2 to locate x2.
0.1 Step 4: Return to step 2 and cycle through steps 2 and 3 until
xi <zF.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Results:
x Feed at stage between 2 and 3.
5 stages (minimum stages = 3.2)
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile
xB=0.05% benzene 48
 Example: Determination of N
Given:
and xB for McCabe-Thiele
100 Kmol/hr of a feed of 60% benzene and 40% heptane is to be separated by distillation. The distillate is to be 90% benzene and
The bottoms 10% benzene. The feed enters the column as 30mol% vapor. Use R 3 times the minimum. Assume a constant relative
Volatility of ∝ of 4 and that the pressure is constant throughout the column at 1atm.

1
Minimum number of stages is determined by stepping off
0.9 between the equilibrium curve and the 45 degree line.The
result is 3.2 stages.
0.8

0.7

0.6
y 0.5
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

x
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 49
McCabe-Thiele Method: Partial
Condenser
Vapor
Partial condenser
The vapor distillate composition then determines Distillate
the yD and stages are stepped off from the intersection
Overhead vapor
of yD and the equilibrium curve.

Reflux

Feed
Boilup

yD Partial reboiler

Bottoms
Equilibrium
curve
q-line
yN
 q   z 
y= x − F 
 q − 1  q −1

45° line
yB

xB x=zF

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 50

 McCabe-Thiele Method:
Multiple Feeds
Distillation Column Total condenser
(multiple feeds)

Overhead vapor Reflux drum

Reflux Distillate

Feed 1

Feed 2
Boilup

Partial reboiler

Bottoms

The McCabe-Thiele method for cascades can be applied to systems with more than
two sections. Here, we show a cascade with 2 feeds: A 3 section cascade.

How do you make the McCabe-Thiele graphical

construction for such a cascade?

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 51

 McCabe-Thiele Method:
Multiple Feeds
First, note that each feed stream changes the slope
of the operating line from section to section.

The feed stream changes the flow rates in the stages

above and below it. Consequently, it changes the
mass balances and the slopes of the operating lines.

Reflux Distillate Distillate

Reflux
Feed 1 Feed 1

Feed 2 Feed 2

Boilup Boilup

Bottoms Bottoms

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 52

 McCabe-Thiele Method:
Multiple Feeds
The flow rates above Feed 1 are constant due to constant molar Total condenser
overflow (CMO). The feed changes the slope depending on the
feed condition. Flow rates in the intermediate section are constant,
but change when Feed 2 is introduced. Overhead vapor Reflux drum

Reflux Distillate
Feed 1

Feed 2
Boilup

y Partial reboiler

Rectifying Section: Bottoms

Operating Line
Equilibrium Constant Slope (CMO)
curve
yN Feed 1 introduced
Intermediate section:
Operating Line
Constant Slope (CMO)
yB Feed 2 introduced
Stripping Section:
Operating Line
Constant Slope (CMO)

xB xDLecture 13: McCabe-Theile 53

 McCabe-Thiele Method:
Multiple Feeds
Example: Feed 1 a saturated vapor of composition zF1 ,
and Feed 2 a saturated liquid of composition zF2
q=1
q>1

0<q<1 L L*
L+V x=y

V L−L
q=0 q=
F
q<0 V*
x=zF

y Saturated vapor
Rectifying Section:
Operating line
Equilibrium Slope=L/V=R/(R+1)<1
curve
yN
Intermediate section:
Operating line
Slope=L’/V’
yB Saturated liquid
Stripping Section:
Operating line
Slope=L/V=(VB+1) /VB

xB x=zF2 x=zF1 xDLecture 13: McCabe-Theile 54

 McCabe-Thiele Method: Side
Stream
Occasionally a cascade is configured such that an
intermediate side stream of intermediate composition
is removed from the column.
Reflux Distillate
How do we analyze this configuration?
Ls
Use the multiple mass balance envelopes and
assume a constant molar overflow condition. Feed
Boilup

If we perform a material balance in the light key

Bottoms
around the stages above the side stream
including the condenser:

Vn+1y n+1 = Ln x n + DxD

Which we can rearrange to find: Reflux Distillate

Ln D Ls
yn+1 = xn + x
Vn+1 Vn+1 D
Feed
For L and V constant from
stage to stage, then: Boilup

L D
y = x + xD Operating line above side stream Bottoms
V V Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 55
 McCabe-Thiele Method: Side
Stream
If we perform a material balance in the light key
around the stages above the side stream
including the side stream and condenser:

Reflux Distillate
V y = L x + L x + Dx
n + 1 n +1 n n s s D
Ls
Which we can rearrange to find:
Feed

Ln L x + Dx D Boilup
yn+1 = xn + s s
Vn+1 Vn+1
Bottoms
For L and V constant from
stage to stage, then:

L' L x + Dx
y= x+ s Operating line below side stream
V V

The two operating lines intersect at :

x = xs

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 56

 McCabe-Thiele Method: Side
y Stream
Side Stream:
Liquid withdrawn
Rectifying Section:
Operating line
Equilibrium Slope=L/V=R/(R+1)<1
curve
yN
Intermediate section:
Operating line
Saturated liquid feed
Slope=L’/V
yB
Stripping Section:
Operating line
Slope=L/V=(VB+1) /VB
Total condenser

xB x=xs xD
Distillation
x=zF
Overhead vapor Reflux drum
1 Reflux Distillate
Rectifying section stages
2
Side Stream xs
Feed

Boilup
Stripping section stages
N
Partial reboiler
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 57
Bottoms
 McCabe-Thiele Method: Open
Steam
Consider the cascade shown on the left:
Distillation
Total condenser

In this example, the reboiler is replaced by a Overhead vapor

source of hot steam or an inert gas. In this case,
the vapor entering the bottom stage of the column 1 Distillate
Rectifying section stages Reflux
has no light key and so yB is zero, although xB is 2
non-zero.
Feed Feed Stage

Stripping section stages

N

Steam or inert hot gas (y=0)

Bottoms

Does the slope of the rectifying section operating line

increase or decrease?

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 58

 McCabe-Thiele Method: Open
y Steam Rectifying Section:
Operating line
Slope=L/V=R/(R+1)<1
Equilibrium
curve
yN

Saturated liquid feed Stripping Section:

yB Operating line
Slope=L/V
Total condenser
Distillation
Overhead vapor Reflux drum
xB x=zF xD 1 Reflux Distillate
Rectifying section stages
2

Feed Feed Stage

Stripping section stages

N

Steam or inert hot gas (y=0)

Bottoms

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 59

 Non-equilibrium McCabe-
curve Thiele: Murphree Efficiency
Equilibrium Actual separation
attained The Murphree Plate Efficiency gives the ratio of
the actual composition difference between two
sequential plates, and that predicted by
equilibrium.
E’ A’
B’
y For the vapor efficiency:
2
yn − yn+1 AB
EMV = =
yN E 3 yn* − yn+1 EB

For the liquid efficiency:

yB 4
A
xn − x n+1 A' B'
EML = =
xn* − x n+1 E' B'
B

xB xD
x=zF

Component distribution obtained less

than theoretical limit described by
equilibrium

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 60

 McCabe-Thiele Algebraic
Method
We have already developed the McCabe-Thiele Graphical Method for cascades. The same
equations we used for the operating lines, q-line, and equilibrium curve can be used to solve
for the compositions in each stage algebraically.

αx
Equilibrium y=
curve 1+ x(α − 1)
y

yN Rectifying Section: R 1
Operating line y= x+ x
Slope=L/V=R/(R+1)<1 R+ 1 R +1 D

yB Stripping Section: L B
Operating line y= x − xB
45° line Slope=L/V=(VB+1) /VB V V

 q   z 
q-line y= x − F 
xB x=zF  q − 1  q −1
xD
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 61
 McCabe-Thiele: Minimum
Reflux
To carry out the algebraic method we need to determine the slopes of the operating lines
algebraically. This can be done finding the intersections between the q-line and equilibrium
curve, and the q-line and the rectifying section operating line.

αx
y=
yD 1+ x(α − 1)

 q   z 
y= x − F 
y  q − 1  q −1

yB
 q   z  αx
y= x − F  =
45° line  q − 1  q − 1 1+ x(α − 1)

xB x=zF xD
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 62
 McCabe-Thiele: Rectifying
Section Operating Line
The slope of the operating line for the rectifying section with minimum reflux can be determined
from the rise over run. We can then also find the minimum reflux from this slope.

 q   z  αx
y= x − F  =
 q − 1  q − 1 1+ x(α − 1)

yD
y D − yq Rmin
=
x D − x q Rmin + 1
y
q 45° line
From the minimum reflux, and R/Rmin we can
determine the reflux R.

yB We determine the slope of the rectifying section

operating line from:

R
slope =
R +1
xB x x=zF xD
q
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 63
 McCabe-Thiele: Rectifying
Section Operating Line
We can find the intersection of the operating line and the q-line to determine the stripping
section operating line:

 q   z  R 1
y= x − F  = x+ x
 q − 1  q − 1 R + 1 R +1 D

yD
R
slope =
R +1
yQR
45° line
From the minimum reflux, and R/Rmin we can
determine the reflux R.

We determine the slope of the stripping section

operating line from:
yQR − y B
yB = slope
xQR − x B
xB xQR x=zF xD
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 64
 McCabe-Thiele: Algebraic
Method
Equilibrium
curve 1. In total condenser y1=x0

2. x1 is determined from the equilibrium curve:

1 αx 1
y1 =
y
1 + x 1 (α − 1)
2
3. y2 is determined from operating line for
the rectifying section:
yN R 1
3 y2 = x1 + x
R+ 1 R +1 D
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until xn is less than
4 xQR (you are on a point of the equilibrium
curve to the left of the intersection of the OL
and the q-line).
yB
5. y3 is determined from operating line for
the stripping section:
xB xQ xD
x=zF L B
R y3 = x2 − xB
V V
6. x3 is determined from the equilibrium curve:
αx 3
y3 =
1 + x 3 (α − 1)
Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 until xn is less than xB 65
 McCabe-Thiele Algebraic
Method: Examples
Equilibrium
curve xD=0.9, xB=0.1, zF=0.5, q=0.8

1 1. Alpha = 4, R=Rmin
2. Alpha=4 R=2Rmin
y 2 3. Alpha=4 R=4Rmin
4. Alpha=4 R=20Rmin
5. Alpha=1.1 R=3Rmin
yN
3

yB

xB xQ xD
x=zF
R

Lecture 13: McCabe-Theile 66

 T h e d istilla tio n co lu m n s a re d e sig n e d u sin g  V LE d a ta  fo r th e m ixtu re s to b e se p a ra te d . T h e va p o u r- liq u id
e q u ilib riu m ch a ra cte ristics ( in d ica te d b y th e sh a p e o f th e e q u ilib riu m cu rve ) o f th e m ixtu re w ill d e te rm in e
th e n u m b e r o f sta g e s, a n d h e n ce th e n u m b e r o f tra ys, re q u ire d fo r th e se p a ra tio n . T h is is illu stra te d cle a rly
b y a p p lyin g th e M cC a b e -T h ie le  m e th o d to d e sig n a b in a ry co lu m n .

OVERALL COLUMN DESIGN

Determining the number of stages required for the desired degree of separation and the location of the feed tray
is merely the first steps in producing an overall distillation column design. Other things that need to be
considered are tray spacings; column diameter; internal configurations; heating and cooling duties. All of these
can lead to conflicting design parameters. Thus, distillation column design is often an iterative procedure. If the
conflicts are not resolved at the design stage, then the column will not perform well in practice. The next set of
notes will discuss the factors that can affect distillation column performance.
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTILLATION COLUMN OPERATION
The performance of a distillation column is determined by many factors, for example:

feed conditionsstate of feed

composition of feed

trace elements that can severely affect the
VLE of liquid mixtures
internal liquid and fluid flow conditions
state of trays (packings)
weather conditions
Some of these will be discussed below to give an idea of the complexity of the distillation
process.
Feed Conditions
The state of the feed mixture and feed
composition affects the operating lines and
hence the number of stages required for
separation. It also affects the location of feed
tray. During operation, if the deviations from
design specifications are excessive, then the
column may no longer be able handle the
separation task. To overcome the problems
associated with the feed, some column are
designed to have multiple feed points when
the feed is expected to containing varying
amounts of components.
As the reflux ratio is increased, the gradient of operating line for the
rectification section moves towards a maximum value of 1. Physically, what
this means is that more and more liquid that is rich in the more volatile
components are being recycled back into the column. Separation then becomes
better and thus less trays are needed to achieve the same degree of
separation. Minimum trays are required under total refluxconditions, i.e.
there is no withdrawal of distillate.On the other hand, as reflux is
decreased, the operating line for the rectification section moves towards
the equilibrium line. The ‘pinch’ between operating and equilibrium lines
becomes more pronounced and more and more trays are required. This is easy
to verify using the McCabe-Thiele method.
The limiting condition occurs at minimum reflux ration, when an infinite
number of trays will be required to effect separation. Most columns are
designed to operate between 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux
ratio because this is approximately the region of minimum operating costs
(more reflux means higher reboiler duty).
Vapour Flow
Conditions Adverse vapour flow conditions can causefoaming



entrainment

weeping/dumping

flooding
FoamingFoaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapour or gas. Although it
provides high interfacial liquid-vapour contact, excessive foaming often leads to liquid buildup on
trays. In some cases, foaming may be so bad that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray above.
Whether foaming will occur depends primarily on physical properties of the liquid mixtures, but is
sometimes due to tray designs and condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is always
reduced.

EntrainmentEntrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapour up to the tray above and is again
caused by high vapour flow rates. It is detrimental because tray efficiency is reduced: lower
volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of higher volatility. It could also contaminate
high purity distillate. Excessive entrainment can lead to flooding.

Weeping/DumpingThis phenomenon is caused by low vapour flow. The pressure exerted by the
vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through
perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to dumping. That is the liquid on all trays will crash
(dump) through to the base of the column (via a domino effect) and the column will have to be re-
started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp pressure drop in the column and reduced separation
efficiency.

FloodingFlooding is brought about by excessive vapour flow, causing liquid to be entrained in the
vapour up the column. The increased pressure from excessive vapour also backs up the liquid in
the downcomer, causing an increase in liquid holdup on the plate above. Depending on the degree
of flooding, the maximum capacity of the column may be severely reduced. Flooding is detected
by sharp increases in column differential pressure and significant decrease in separation efficiency.
Column
Diameter Most of the above factors that affect column operation is due to vapour flow conditions: either
excessive or too low. Vapour flow velocity is dependent on column diameter. Weeping determines
the minimum vapour flow required while flooding determines the maximum vapour flow allowed,
hence column capacity. Thus, if the column diameter is not sized properly, the column will not
perform well. Not only will operational problems occur, the desired separation duties may not be
achieved.
State of Trays and Packings
Remember that the actual number of trays required for a particular separation duty is determined by
the efficiency of the plate, and the packings if packings are used. Thus, any factors that cause a
decrease in tray efficiency will also change the performance of the column. Tray efficiencies are
affected by fouling, wear and tear and corrosion, and the rates at which these occur depends on the
properties of the liquids being processed. Thus appropriate materials should be specified for tray
construction.
Weather Conditions
Most distillation columns are open to the atmosphere. Although many of the columns are insulated,
changing weather conditions can still affect column operation. Thus the reboiler must be
appropriately sized to ensure that enough vapour can be generated during cold and windy spells and
that it can be turned down sufficiently during hot seasons. The same applies to condensors.
These are some of the more important factors that can cause poor distillation column performance. Other factors
include changing operating conditions and throughputs, brought about by changes in upstream conditions and
changes in the demand for the products. All these factors, including the associated control system, should be
considered at the design stages because once a column is built and installed, nothing much can be done to rectify
the situation without incurring significant costs. The control of distillation columns is a field in its own right, but
that's another story.
 Efficiency
• Actual Trays or Height= Theoretical
Stages/Efficiency
• (Murphree) efficiency for tray columns
– Apply efficiency factor for actual trays
– Apply safety factor for final number of trays
• Height equivalent of a theoretical stage
(HETP) for packed columns
– Multiply by HETP to get total height of
packed section
• Difficult to predict from first principles
– Depends on contacting device, system,
hydraulics
– Experimental data and correlations
– Vendor information (see brochure)
 Characteristics of Tray
Columns
• Predictable hydraulic and mass transfer
behavior
• Moderate to high pressure drop per tray
• Can be scaled to large diameters
• Low cost
• Suitable for fouling service
• Feed point flexibility is easy
 Characteristics of Packed
Columns
• Low pressure drop / smaller diameter
• Random packing scale-up for HETP is
difficult; structured packing scale-up is
predictable
• HETP prediction less well developed than for
trays
• Low to moderate cost for random packing;
high cost for structured packing
• Not suitable for fouling service
• Feed point flexibility is difficult
 Specification of a Tray
Column
• Number of actual stages
• Feed tray location
• Type of trays
• Tray spacing
• Tray layout
• Column diameter
• Column height
• Feed / Offtake arrangements / Nozzle
sizes
• Reboiler / Condenser details
 Packed Column
Specification
• Type of packing
– Random packing
– Structured packing
– Trade-off pressure drop vs. HETP vs.
cost
• Column diameter
• Height of packing
• Feeds and offtakes
 Tray Column Height
• Column Height =
 # actual stages x tray spacing +
space allowance for feed/draws + sump
+ top volume
• Tray spacing for most applications is 18-
24 inches
• Rule of thumb could be to add 1- 2
nozzle diameters to the total height
for feeds and draws
• Sumps sized on liquid residence time.
Two to five minutes is typical.
 Packed Column Height
• HETP Replaces Tray Efficiency
• Bed Height = No of Theoretical
Stages x HETP
– HETP = height equivalent to a
theoretical plate
•
• HETP is difficult to generalize and is a
function of the type of packing, the
system being separated and the
hydraulics of the column.
Experimental or vendor-supplied
 Flooding and Weeping

Weeping Flooding

Flow weeps through Liquid cannot get

the holes at low vapor down the column
velocity at high vapor velocity
 Column Diameter
• Column diameter is chosen to provide a
comfortable range of operating between
flooding and weeping. A typical operating
range is about 70% of the flooding
velocity.
• The flooding velocity is determined by
correlations
• An approach to flooding is used to get the
actual superficial velocity (based on
column diameter).
• Downcomers take up about 5-20% of
column area
• Diameters should be rounded to standard
Cocurrent flow

Counter-current flow

Crosscurrent flow
 Azeotropic Distillation
• This type of distillation is used for processes
that produce almost 100 percent alcohol
with help of an organic solvent and two
additional distillations.
• A solvent (pentane, gasoline etc.) is added to
distillation product comming out of the usual
distillation column.
• Mixture is fed to another distillation column
which seperates it into a top product and a
bottom product.
• Distillate of this column is fed to a third column
which distills out the solvent leaving the
mixture of alcohol-water.
• Solvent is recycled and never gets out.
• System is hard to design and it is more
Ch E 307 – Transport Phenomena III:
Stage Separations

Complex Distillation Methods

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 Zeotrope
• A nonazeotropic liquid mixture which
may be separated by distillation,
and in which the components are
–

– miscible in all proportions

(homogeneous zeotrope or
homozeotrope)
–

– not miscible in all proportions

(heterogeneous zeotrope or
heterozeotrope)
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 Azeotrope
• We tried to unmix this, but nope;
Distill it? We haven't a hope.
Its vapor is the same
As the liquid. The name
For this mixture's an azeotrope.
•

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 Azeotrope
• An azeotrope is a mixture of
components in such a ratio that its
composition cannot be changed by
simple distillation because the vapor
has the same ratio of constituents as
the liquid.
• Because composition is unchanged,
azeotropes are also called constant
boiling mixtures.
• Azeotrope is derived from Greek ζέειν
(boil) and τρόπος (change) with the
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Types of azeotropes
maximum
minimum boiling
boiling

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 "breaking" an azeotrope
• pressure swing distillation
• azeotropic/extractive distillation
• chemical (re)action separation
• use of dissolved salt to affect relative
volatility
• Pervaporation (use of a membrane
that is more permeable to the one
constituent than to the another to
separate the constituents of an
azeotrope as it passes from liquid
to vapor phase)
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pressure-swing distillation

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 Binary Heterogeneous
Azeotropes
• This is an x-y diagram for a mixture of
water (A) and n-butanol (B), which forms
an
heterogeneous azeotrope.
At the azeotropic
composition, the
homogeneous vapor
mixture condenses into a
liquid system with two
different phases of
composition and  in
equilibrium with each other.
• New Mexico State University
 Binary Heterogeneous
Azeotropes
For a minimum-boiling azeotrope with large


deviation from Raoult’s law ( i >> 1),

phase splitting may occur and a minimum-
boiling heterogeneous azeotrope forms,
having a vapor
phase in
equilibrium with
two liquid phases.
•

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n-butanol/water T-xy
diagram see animation
on course
website

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 created in Aspen Plus

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 analyze stripping column 1

 L  L  
yB =   xB −   − 1 xB,bot1
 V 1  V 1 

F = B1 + B2
FzB = B1xB,bot1 + B2xB,bot2
rearrange as

F( zB − xB,bot2 ) F( zB − xB,bot1 )
B1 = B2 =
( xB,bot1 − xB,bot2 ) ( xB,bot2 − xB,bot1)

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 x

 L  L  
yB =   xB −   − 1 xB,bot1
 V 1  V 1 
x B,bot1
 analyze column 2

bottom operating line

 L  L  
yB =   xB −   − 1 xB,bot2
 V 2  V 2 

top operating line

 L   L 
yB =   xB − 1−    xB,bot1
 V 2   V 2 

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  L  L  
yB =   xB −   − 1 xB,bot2
 V 2  V 2 

 L  L  
yB =   xB −   − 1 xB,bot1
 V 1  V 1 

x
x

 L   L 
yB =   xB − 1−    xB,bot1
 V 2   V 2 

x B,bot1 x B,bot2 x B,bot2

 Partial water miscibility
• Partially miscible wate
system of organic r
phas
and water form a organic phase
e

single phase only feed

at very high, or
very low water
concentrations.
• Water is the more
volatile dry organic

component in
such systems.
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 Partial water miscibility
vapor phase mole fraction water

wate
r
phas
e
organic phase

feed

liquid phase mole fraction water

dry organic

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 Partial water miscibility
• In each phase, wate
Raoult's can be r
phas
applied to organic phase
e

miscible feed
materials, while
Henry's can be
applied top the
pa = ( VPa ) xa-a o = Hoxo-a
nonmiscible.
– aqueous phase dry organic
po = ( VPo ) xo−o pa = Haxa−o
–
– organic phase
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 Partial water miscibility
• Equate partial w a te
pressures of the r
phas
same phase, solve o rg a n ic p h a se e
for( VPaHenry's
) xa-a ( VPo ) xo-o
Ha = Ho = fe e d
constant:
xa−o xo−a

•
• H calculated from known
a = ( VP ) x
psolubilities
a p =H x
a-a o o o-a
d ry o rg a n ic
po = ( VPo ) xo−o pa = Haxa−o

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 Partial water miscibility
• Estimations of  of w a te
water in organic r
phas
phase:
α a,o−o =
ya xa−o
o rg a n ic p h a se e
yo xo−o
(p p )x (p x )
= a t a−a = a a−a
fe e d
( po pt ) xa−o ( po xo−o )
α a,o−o =
Ha
=
( VPa ) xa−a
( VPo ) ( VPo ) xa−o
pa = ( VPa ) xa-a po = Hoxo-a
d ry o rg a n ic
po = ( VPo ) xo−o pa = Haxa−o

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 Steam Distillation
• Steam added directly to distilling
organic mixture to reduce the
required temperature and to keep
suspended any solids that may be
present.
• Separation of volatiles from
nonvolatiles.
• Process results in a pseudo-binary
distillation with the water and volatile
organics forming a heterogeneous
azeotrope.
• Common in purification of essential oils,
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coal organics, waste solvent
Batch Steam Distillation

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Continuous Steam
Distillation
vo la tile o rg a n ic

w a te
r
fe e d
o rg a n ics

ste a m
w a te
r

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 Steam Distillation
• With two liquid phases present and in
equilibrium, compositions of the liquid
phases are fixed by their mutual
solubilities.
• As the amount of aqueous or organic
phase is increased, phase
concentrations do not change.
• Since each phase exerts its own vapor
pressure, the vapor composition will
be constant regardless of the average
liquid composition.
• A heterogeneous azeotrope results.
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 Steam Distillation
• Water and organic phasespaexert + po = pt
separate vapor pressures on the
total pressure: ( VPo ) ⋅ xv−o + ( VPa) ⋅ xa−a = pt
• Consider the case where 1 of the
organics in the mixture is a volatile
species:
• Liquid phase compositions yi =set
pi pt by
equilibrium. When total pressure is
fixed, temperature is set (i.e.,
bubble point calculation), and
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 Steam Distillation
Ratio
• nv,o yvof
,o
volatile
pv,o porganic
v,o ( VP
too )water
xv,o in the
=
vapor =is = = yi = pi pt
n a y
a ap p −p
t p − ( VP ) x
v,o t o v,o
•
•
• If several volatile organics exist in the
organic phase, yv,o and pv,o are the
sums of the respective values for all
the organics.
• The total moles of steam required is nw
plus the amount condensed to heat
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 Complex ternary distillation
systems
• A distillation curve is a plot of mole
fractions on every tray for
distillation at ctotal c
reflux.
yi,j = ∑ Ki ( T,p,xi,j ) xi,j = 1
∑
• Consider column i=1 numbered
i=1 from top
down yi,j = xi,j−1
– Bubble point calc α i−refxi,j
at every stage xi,j−1 = c
∑
– Total reflux operating line
( α i−refxi,j )
i=1
–

– Solution at every stage

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 Residue Curves
• A residue curve is a triangular
diagram that displays
concentrations for a 1-stage
batch distillation operated to
dryness   f(Nstage ).
• Residue curves follow the liquid
residue composition in the still.
• Different residue lines result from
different starting compositions. A
collection of these curves for a
given ternary system is called a
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 Residue Curves
• During distillation, molar liquid holdup H
drops. dH d( Hxi )
• Unsteady state mass = − V component
and = −Vyi
dt dt
dxi V( t)
balances:
V=
– wheredt ( xi −rate
is molar yi )
H
at which vapor leaves
• Rearrange


 ( ) 
c
x
– System of = x
i,k+1i ODEs
i,k + h x
 must
i,k − α ibe x
−ref isolve
,k α
∑ i−ref i,k 
x
 i=1 
simultaneously
• For constant , recursion relations can
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A ternary residue map of
a heterogeneous system
viewed as three binary
Txy diagrams

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 features of a
residue curve map

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Residue Map Characteristics
If we assign direction of the residue


curves as from the starting

composition to the ending
composition, then the arrow on
each curve points from a lower
boiling component or azeotrope
to a higher boiling component or
azeotrope.

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Residue Map Characteristics
The presence of azeotropes can
create distillation boundaries
which cannot be crossed by a residue
curve.
Distillation boundaries represent the

residue curve on which the light or

starting residue composition is a
lower boiling pure component or
azeotrope and the heavy or ending
composition residue is a higher pure
component or azeotrope.
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Residue Map Characteristics
Any given pure component point or


azeotrope will be connected to some

but not all other pure component
points and azeotropes on the graph.
Those that are connected form
distillation boundaries. These
boundaries are thermodynamic in
nature.

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•
Residue Map terminology
Node: Residue curves begin and end at
nodes.
• Stable node: The component or azeotrope
with the highest boiling point in the region.
All the residue curves in the region point to
(terminate) at this point.
• Unstable node: The component or
azeotrope with the lowest boiling point in
the region.
• Saddle: Residue curves move toward and
then away from saddles. Pure components
and azeotropes which have a boiling point
between the stable and
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University
 Residue
Types of stationary points of

curves
three-component mixtures:
• (a) 1 component stable
node,
• (b) 1 component unstable
node,
• (c) 1 component saddle,
• (d) 2-component stable
node,
• (e) 2-component unstable
node,
• (f) 2-component saddle,
• (g) 3-component stable
node,
• (h) 3-component unstable
node, New Mexico State University
 Residue curves
• Residue-curve maps can be used to
make preliminary estimates of
regions of feasible product
compositions for distillation of non-
ideal ternary mixtures.

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•
Residue curves
Product regions are determined by
superimposing a column material balance
on the curve map diagram.
• If a straight line is drawn that connects
distillate and bottoms compositions, that
line must pass through the feed
composition at some intermediate point to
satisfy overall and component material
balances.
• For such a material balance line, the
distillate and bottoms compositions must
lie on the same residue curve.
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 S

Lever Rule

F = 100 kmol/hr
S = 52 kmol/hr 100
B 152

M
52
152

D
F

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 feasible product regions, zeotropic
systems:
i. Find the limiting distillate H
composition point for the
region. Draw a line
from this point through the
feed composition, to the
opposite side
F
of the map. This point
represents
M1
the bottoms composition with
the lowest amount of
low boiler possible for L I
the limiting distillate
composition
(material balance line M1).
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 feasible product regions, zeotropic
systems:
ii. Find the limiting bottoms H
composition point for the
region. Draw a line M2
from this point, through the
feed composition, to the
opposite side
F
of the map. This point
represents
M1
the distillate composition with
the lowest amount of high
boiler L I
possible for the limiting
bottoms composition
(material balance line M2).
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 feasible product regions, zeotropic
systems:
H
iii.Locate and draw distillate curve
which contains the feed M2
composition (curve DF).
DF
iv.The areas on the convex side
of DF, and lying between F

M1 and DF and between

M1
M2 and DF, are the
feasible product
I
regions. L

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 feasible product regions,
azeotropic systems
For azeotropic systems with distillation
boundaries, a feasible product region can be
found for each region.

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 Te rn a ry
H e te ro g e n e o u s
A ze o tro p e

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Ethanol/Water, using Toluene
entrainer

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 Ethanol/Water with
Toluene entrainer

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 Extractive Distillation
• used for the A
separation Pro d u ct
B
of Pro d u ct
azeotropes re cycl
and close- fe e 1 e
d so lve n 2
boiling t
mixtures.
• solvent is
added to
the
column, for m a ke u p
which one so lve n t
of the
component
s (B) is New Mexico State University
selectively
 Azeotropic Distillation w/ added
• When a Solvent azeotrope
phase
separation
homogeneous
azeotrope is
formed, added azeot
solvent or ropic makeup
entrainer
entrainer can fe e d
colum stripp
be used to n er
produce a
binary or
ternary
azeotrope which
can be used to
separate the
mixture. B
A
• The exact nature
of the flowsheet
depends on the
equilibrium New Mexico State University
behavior of the
 Reactive Distillation
• When reactions occur in a column, the
mass and energy balances must be
modified to include reaction terms.
• Often used to separate products
simultaneously during chemical
reaction to drive an equilibrium
reaction in the direction of the
products.

New Mexico State University

 A↔ C
Reactive Distillation
A + B ↔ C+ D
A↔D
C b le e d C

fe e d

volatil
non -
volatil
B B & D
e non -
e volatil
product product e
A

fe e d

b le e d D D

New Mexico State University

 Reactive Distillation
• A general mass balance for stage j is
Vjyj + Ljxj − Vj−1yj−1 − Lj−1xj−1 = Fjzj + rj
where the reaction term rj is positive
for product components of the
reaction.
• A rate law must be substituted into this
equation.

New Mexico State University

 1
2 D
Rectifying sec . n

1
Stripping sec . m
Feed plate
m+1

B
Steam distillation is employed in the manufacture of essential oils, for
instance, perfumes. In this method, steam is passed through the plant material
containing the desired oils. It is also employed in the synthetic procedures
of complex organic compounds. Eucalyptus oil and orange oil are obtained by
this method on the industrial scale.
Steam distillation is also widely used in petroleum refineries and 
petrochemical plants where it is commonly referred to as "steam stripping".
Other industrial uses of steam distillation include the production of
consumer food products such as sprayable or aerosolized condiments such as
sprayable mayonnaise
 phenylamine 94.30
water kPa
7.07 kPa
our pressure of the mixture
that the mixture is being agitated, then both of the liquids will be in equilibrium with their vapours. The total vapour pressure is then
e sum of the individual vapour pressures:
po refers to the saturated vapour pressure of the pure liquid.
at this is independent of the amount of each sort of liquid present. All you need is enough of each so that both can exist in equilibrium
vapour.
ple, phenylamine and water can be treated as if they were completely immiscible. (That isn't actually true, but they are near enough
e to be usable as an example.)
the saturated vapour pressures of the two pure liquids are:
vapour pressure of an agitated mixture would just be the sum of these - in other words, 101.37 kPa
oint of the mixture
oil when their vapour pressure becomes equal to the external pressure. Normal atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa.
that with the figure we have just got for the total vapour pressure of a mixture of water and phenylamine at 98°C. Its total vapour
is fractionally higher than the normal external pressure.
ns that such a mixture would boil at a temperature just a shade less than 98°C - in other words lower than the boiling point of pure
0°C) and much lower than the phenylamine (184°C).
Steam distillation  is a special type of distillation (a 
separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural 
aromaticcompounds.
Many organic compounds tend to decompose at high sustained temperatures.
Separation by normal distillation would then not be an option, so water
or steam is introduced into the distillation apparatus. By adding water
or steam, the boiling points of the compounds are depressed, allowing them
to evaporate at lower temperatures, preferably below the temperatures at
which the deterioration of the material becomes appreciable. If the
substances to be distilled are very sensitive to heat, steam distillation
can also be combined with vacuum distillation. After distillation the
vapors are condensed as usual, usually yielding a two-phase system of
water and the organic compounds, allowing for simple separation.
Principle
When a mixture of two practically immiscible liquids is heated while being
agitated to expose the surfaces of both the liquids to the vapor phase, each
constituent independently exerts its own vapor pressure as a function of
temperature as if the other constituent were not present. Consequently, the
vapor pressure of the whole system increases. Boiling begins when the sum of
the partial pressures of the two immiscible liquids just exceeds the 
atmospheric pressure (approximately 101 kPa at sea level). In this way, many
organic compounds insoluble in water can be purified at a temperature well
below the point at which decomposition occurs. For example, the boiling
point of bromobenzene is 156 C and the boiling point of water is 100 C,
but a mixture of the two boils at 95  C. Thus, bromobenzene can be easily
distilled at a temperature 61 C below its normal boiling point.
Applications
Steam distillation is employed in the manufacture of essential oils, for
instance, perfumes. In this method, steam is passed through the plant
material containing the desired oils. It is also employed in the synthetic
procedures of complex organic compounds.Eucalyptus oil and orange oil are
obtained by this method on the industrial scale.
Steam distillation is also widely used in petroleum refineries and 
petrochemical plants where it is commonly referred to as "steam stripping".
Other industrial uses of steam distillation include the production of
consumer food products such as sprayable or aerosolized condiments such as
sprayable mayonnaise.
he Volatile Acid Still is a glass apparatus specific to the wine industry, for
the determination of volatile acids  in wine by steam distillation. Our
standard glass VA still includes an aspirator pump to suck the sample out
after completion of the analysis, allowing for rapid cycling of samples. Its
precursor was the glass Cash Still and many people refer to these stills
generically as "Cash still" or "RD80". For historical interest, see our notes
on the history of the VA Still. Adams & Chittenden Scientific Glass
manufactures both the VA Still and Cash Still, offering an exceptionally high
quality product, with a new, improved cordset and connector , and a large
capacity condenser, at competitive prices. We have been making VA Stills and
Cash Stills our entire glassblowing careers. We are proud of our stills; they
have a high "Wow" factor and demonstrate our skills and quality. For
instructions on setup and operation, see the Instructions.
We were entertained to hear a SoundClip on NPR's "Talk of the Nation" on 
Hearing a Wine's Acidity  featuring the sound of the VA Still. Thanks to
Patrick Taylor of Cuneo Cellars for permission to use his words and sounds.