EARTHING

TO SAFEGUARD
SYSTEM
 Based on IEEE-80

EARTH RESISTANCE VALUE OF

SUBSTATIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT
AS FAR AS PROTECTION IS CONCERNED
INCIDENTS DUE TO INCREASE OF ER

SUBSTATION INCIDENT
PUTHUR SUBSTATION CHARGER &LT PANEL BURNT

KAVANADU SUBSTATION CHARGER BURNT

MALAPPURAM SUBSTATION 2NOS.12.5MVA

TRANSFORMERS&CONTROL
PANELS BURNT
INCIDENTS DUE TO INCREASE OF ER

SUBSTATION INCIDENT
VELLRADA SUBSTATION CHARGER &LT PANEL BURNT

KOTTARAKKARA SUBSTATION CHARGER BURNT

AHANI SUBSTATION 2NOS.12.5MVA TRANSFORMER

BURNT

VARKALA SUBSTATION CHARGER CIRCUIT DAMAGED

SEVERAL TIMES
INCIDENTS DUE TO INCREASE OF ER

SUBSTATION INCIDENT
PALA SUBSTATION UNWANTED TRIPPING OF
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

EDAMON SUBSTATION COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENTS

DAMAGED

KUNDARA SUBSTATION COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENTS

DAMAGED

THIRUMALA SUBSTATION CHARGER CIRCUIT PROBLEMS

INCIDENTS DUE TO INCREASE OF ER

SUBSTATION INCIDENT
THALASSERY SUBSTATION SHOCK IN C/R WHEN 11K V
FEEDER TRIPS

MEPPAYYUR SUBSTATION SHOCK FROM FENCING ,LT

ENERGY METER BURNT

KALAMASERY SUBSTATION LA FLASHING,PANEL WIRING

BURNT FREQUENTLY

ALUVA SUBSTATION TFR BUSHING FLASH

INCIDENTS DUE TO INCREASE OF ER

SUBSTATION INCIDENT
KODAKARA SUBSTATION CHARGER DAMAGED SEVERAL
TIMES, COMPLETE CONTROL
WIRING BURNT

VADAKKUMCHERY SUBSTATION SHOCK FROM EHT TOWER

FOOTING, AND AT PADDY FIELD
VALAPPAD SUBSTATION SHOCK FROM 33 KV A POLE TO
PUBLIC
Change in observed fault
impedance due to GPR may
lead to the fault being
assigned to different zone
other than that in which fault
occurred and this may
increase fault clearing time .
ZONE SETTING OF DISTANCE RELAYS
ARE CALCULATING WITH FAULT
IMPEDENCE. IN NORMAL CASE EARTH
RESISTANCE IS TAKEN AS NEGLIGIBLE
AS EARTH RESISTANCE BECOME HIGH
FAULT IMPEDENCE WILL INCREASE
THIS CAUSE TO REDUCE FAULT
CURRENT , HENCE LEAD TO INCREASE
FAULT CLEARING TIME, AND MAY SHOW
WRONG ZONE INDICATION.
INCREASE IN ER MAKES GROUND
POTENTIAL RISE (GPR), THIS CAUSES
INCREASE OF EARTH POTENTIAL OF
ALL RELAYS, ESPECIALLY FOR
NUMERIC RELAYS INCREASE IN EARTH
POTENTIAL MAKES A LOT OF
PROBLEMS, BECAUSE NUMERICAL
RELAYS ARE VERY SNSITIVE IN NATURE
A SMALL CHANGE IN REFERENCE
VOLTAGES MAKE THE RELAY
MALOPERATIONAL.
IF ER IS HIGHER THAN NORMAL THEN THE
GPR WILL CAUSE THE COMPONENTS OF
NUMERICAL RELAYS TO DAMAGE
IF ER IS HIGHER , WHEN A FAULT OCCURS
THE GPR WILL BECOME VERY HIGH ,
GPR IS RELATED TO ER AND FAULT
CURRENT
The two main design goals to be achieved
by any substation ground system under
both normal and fault conditions are:
1. To provide means to dissipate electric
currents into the earth without exceeding
any operating and equipment limits
2. To assure that a person in the vicinity of
grounded facilities is not exposed to the
danger of critical electric shock [4].
Permissible Current Through a Human
Body During the Fault
Humans are quite sensitive to AC currents
ranging from 50-60 Hz. The effects of the AC
current going through a human body depend
on the magnitude, duration, and also
frequency [6]. The threshold of perception for
the human body is about 1mA. Currents
between 1-6 mA, often called let-go currents,
usually do not impair a person from
controlling his muscles and releasing the
Higher currents ranging from 9-25 mA can
cause pain and affect the muscle control so
that the energized object is hard if not
impossible to release [1]. Still higher currents
between 25-75 mA can affect breathing and
may cause fatality. If current is even higher,
it could result in ventricular fibrillation of the
heart, which if not treated quickly, can result
in death [6]. When currents reach 100 mA
and higher, above the ventricular fibrillation
ground potential rise (GPR). The maximum
voltage that a station grounding
grid may attain relative to a distant grounding
point assumed to be at the potential
of remote earth.
The GPR is calculated as:

GPR = Ig*Rg
Ig= Max.grid current
Rg =Ground Resistance
 FAULT LEVEL

400 KV MADAKKATHARA : 7588 MVA

220 KV EDAMAON :7052 MVA

220 KV EDAPPON : 2864 MVA

220 KV KALAMASSERY : 7034 MVA

220 KV KUNDARA : 2381 MVA

220 KV POTHENCODE : 5435 MVA

110 KV ATTINGAL : 2153 MVA

110 KV KATTAKADA : 2084 MVA

110 KV KILIMANOOR : 1068 MVA

110 KV MEDICAL COLLEGE :2241 MVA

110 KV NEDUMANGAD : 2306 MVA

110 KV PARUTHIPPARA : 2554 MVA

110 KV PARASSALA : 2235 MVA

110 KV TECHNOPARK : 2570 MVA

110 KV TERLS : 2180 MVA

110 KVTHIRUMALA : 1649 MVA

110 KV VARKALA : 1096 MVA

66 KV GIS LA COMPLEX : 1452 MVA

66 KV GIS POWERHOUSE : 1439 MVA

66 KV NEYYATTINKARA : 1210 MVA

66 KV PALODE : 209 MVA

66 KV VATTIYUR KAVU : 860 MVA

33 KV CHULLIMANOOR : 111 MVA

33 KV KALLAMBALAM : 101 MVA

33 KV POOVAR : 105 MVA

33KV VELLARADA : 110 MVA

33 KV VENJARAMOODU : 95 MVA

33 KV VITHURA : 86 MVA
RISE IN VOLTAGE
 :7.6 KA

IF EARTH RESISTANCE AT THIS STATION

IS 4 OHMS THEN RISE IN VOLTAGE ON

GROUND FOR FAULT : 7.6KA* 4ohms KV

: 30 KV
IF THE FAULT OCCURS WITHIN 50 M
FROM

YARD THEN APPROX STEP POTENTIAL

WILL BE 30 KV /50: 0.6 KV : 600 V

IF EARTH RESISTANCE IS 0.5 OHMS

THEN STEP POTENTIAL WILL BECOME

0.6KV *0.5ohms/ 4ohms : 0.075 KV = 75 V

step voltage. The difference in surface
potential experienced by a person bridging
a distance of 1 m with his feet without
contacting any other grounded object.
Step and Touch Voltage Criteria. The safety
of a person depends on preventing
the critical amount of shock energy from being
absorbed before the fault
is cleared and the system de-energized. The
maximum driving voltage of any
accidental circuit should not exceed the limits
defined below. For step voltage the
limit is
touch voltage. The potential difference
between the ground potential rise (GPR)
and the surface potential at the point where a
person is standing, while at the
same time having his hands in contact with a
grounded structure.
ground return circuit. A circuit in which the
earth or an equivalent conducting
body is utilized to complete the circuit and
allow current circulation from or to its
current source.
ground. A conducting connection, whether
intentional or accidental, by which an
electric circuit or equipment is connected to the
earth or to some conducting
body of relatively large extent that serves in
place of the earth.
Estep= ( R b + R(2fs)) IB
R2fs = resistance of two feet in series
R2fp = resistance of two feet in parallel
IB = rms magnitude of the current through the bodyIB
= 0 . 1 1 6 /Sqrt(ts) for 50 kg body
weight,ts=clearing time
A value of 1000 ohms is selected for the calculations
that follow as representing
the resistance of a human body from hand-to-both-feet
and also from handto-
hand, or from one foot to the other foot:
RB = 1OOO ohms
Etouch = (RB + R2fp) IB

hand-to-hand, 21.0 V

hand-to-feet, 10.2 V.

the current 9.0 mA

 SAFE VALUES

TOUCH VOLTAGE : 360 VOLT

STEP VOLTAGE : 995 VOLT

(AS PER PLANNING )

 DESIGNED VALUES FOR PEYAD
SUBSTATION

TOUCH VOLTAGE : 299 VOLT

STEP VOLTAGE :200V

grounded. A system, circuit, or apparatus
referred to is provided with ground
for the purposes of establishing a ground
return circuit and for maintaining its
potential at approximately the potential of
earth.
ground current. A current flowing into or out
of the earth or its equivalent serving
as a ground.
Conditions of Danger. During typical ground
fault conditions, the flow of
current to earth will produce potential gradients
within and around a substation.
shows this effect for a station with a simple
rectangular grounding grid
in homogeneous soil.
The circumstances that make electric shock accidents
possible are:
(1) Relatively high fault current to ground in relation to
the area of ground
system and its resistance to remote earth
(2) Soil resistivity and distribution of ground currents
such that high potential
gradients may occur at points at the earth surface
(3) Presence of an individual at such a point, time, and
position that the body
is bridging two points of high potential difference
(3) Presence of an individual at such a point, time, and
position that the body
is bridging two points of high potential difference
(4) Absence of sufficient contact resistance or other
series resistance to limit
current through the body to a safe value under the
above circumstances
(5) Duration of the fault and body contact, and hence,
of the flow of current
through a human body for a sufficient time to cause
harm at the given current
intensity
Importance of High-speed Fault Clearing.
Considering the significance of
fault duration and implicitly as an accident-
exposure factor,
high-speed clearing of ground faults is
advantageous for two reasons:
(1) The probability of electric shock is greatly
reduced by fast fault clearing
time, in contrast to situations in which fault
currents could persist for several
minutes or possibly hours
(2) Both tests and experience show that the
chance of severe injury or death is
greatly reduced if the duration of a current flow
through the body is very brief;
the allowed current value may therefore be
based on the clearing time of primary
protective devices, or that of the back-up
protection
A good case could be made for the former
because of the low combined probability
that relay malfunctions will coincide with all
other adverse factors necessary
for an accident
DUE TO THIS HIGH GRP AT THE TIME OF
FAULT HEAVY ARCING WILL OCCUR AT
ALL EARTHING POINTS THIS ARCING
WILL CAUSE HEATING OF INSULATIONS
AND HENCE THAT MAY CAUSE OPEN
CIRCUITS IN CONTROL CIRCUITS, THE
ENTIRE CONTROL CIRCUIT MAY FAIL,
THAT MAY LEAD TO FIRE IN
TRANSFORMERS AND OTHER
EQUIPMENTS DUE TO NON CLEARANCE
OF FAULTS IN TIME.
INCREASE OF GPR IS DANGEROUS ,
BECAUSE THIS CAUSES INCREASE OF
STEP POTENTIAL AND TOUCH
POTENTIAL, THIS WILL LEADTO
ACCIDENTS TO OPERATORS AND
OTHER PERSONS WHO COMES IN
CONTACT EARTHED PART ,WALKING
OVER THE GROUND, WHERE STEP
POTENTIAL IS HIGH.
Effect of a Thin Surface Layer of Crushed Rock.
based on the assumption of uniform soil resistivity.
However, a 0.08-
0.15 m (3- 6 in) layer of crushed rock is often spread
on the earth’s surface above
the ground grid to increase the contact resistance
between the soil and the feet of
people in the substation. The crushed rock also
improves the surface for the
movement of equipment and vehicles in the
substation. The area covered by this
crushed rock layer is generally of sufficient size to
validate the assumption of the
feet being in contact with a material of uniform
resistivity in the lateral direction.
However, the relatively shallow depth of the
crushed rock as compared to the
equivalent radius of the foot precludes the
assumption of uniform resistivity in
the vertical direction when computing the self
and mutual resistances of the feet.
EARTH RESISTANCE
 EARTH RESISTANCE VALUES
AS PER INDIAN STANDARD IS
3043

 MAJOR GEN.STATIONS and

 SUBSTATIONS :0.5ohms
 110kv &66kv s/s :1 ohms
 33kv s/s : 2 ohms
 DISTRN.TFR : 4 ohms

 EHT LINE 220 KV : 10 ohms

EHT LINE 66 KV : 10 ohms
HT LINE : 10 ohms
 HOUSE BUILDING : 5 OHMS
 COMMUNICATION
NETWORK

HIGH ER MAKES TROUBLES IN

COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS
INCREASE IN ER MAKES DIFFERENT
EARTH POTENTIAL AT DIFFERENT
POINTS , THIS CAUSES DISTORTION OF
COMMMUNICATION SIGNALS.
AT PRESENT KSEB IS PRVIDING OFC
NETWORK THROUGHOUT KERALA FOR
COMMUNICATION , TELEMETERING AND
DATA TRANSFER.
 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

DISTORTION IN COMMUNICATION
NETWORK WILL EFFECT
CMMUNICATION,TELEMETERING AND
DATATRANSFER.
AS WE KNOW THAT THE DATAS ARE
DIRECTLY SEND TO SOUTHERN
REGION LDC AND NATIONAL LDC.
COMMUNICATION SIGNAL DISTORTION
LEAD TO MAL OPERATION AT LD, SRLDC
AND NLDC.
 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT
GROUNDING SHALL BE SINGLE POINT
GROUNDING CONNECTED TO
SUBSTATION AT SINGLE POINT

ALL COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENTS IN

THE ROOM SHALL BE CONNECTED TO
THIS SINGLE POINT EARTHING BUSBAR
USING COPPER CONDUCTORS.
 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

GROUND LOOPS MUST BE AVOIDED AS

THIS CREATES PATHS FOR FAULT
CURRENT

POSITIVE TERMINAL OF 48 VOLT DC FOR

COMMUNICATION TO BE EARTHE DTO
THE EARTH BUS USING COPPER
CONDUCTORS
 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

PROVIDE ADDITIONAL EARTH PIT JUST

BEFORE THE EARTH STRIP ENTERING
COMMUNICATION ROOM TO REDUCE
GPR.
 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

COAXIAL TERMINATION PANEL

THIS SHALL BE PLACED AT THE ENTRY

OF EARTH STRIPFROM YARD AND
CONNECT THIS PANEL SOLIDLY TO
EARTH BUSBAR
 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

IN THE MAIN DISTRIBUTION PANEL

SURGE ARRESTERS PROPERLY CONNET

TO EARTH WITH FUSES AND SHALL BE
PROVIDED FOR ALL TERMINATIONS
 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

ALL TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENTS

BATTERY CHARGER, COAXIAL CABLE,
LINEMATCHING UNIT AND COUPLING
CAPACITOR

SHALL BE CONNECTED TO EARTH STRIP

WITH MINIMUM TWO COPPER
CONDUCTORS(MIN. 10 MM2),
EARTHING
PIPE EARTHING

FOR EARTH
RESISTANCE < 4 OHMS
PLATE EARTHING

FOR EARTH
RESISTANCE ,< 2 OHMS
 .

 .

 .

 .

 .

 .

 .
EARTH MAT

FOR EARTH
RESISTANCE < 1 OHMS
 EARTH MAT

WELDING OF EARTH MAT IS VERY

IMPORTANT, DC WELDING IS USED TO
WELD RODS AND A COMPOUND IS
USED TO SORROUND THE WELDING
JOINTS TO AVOID CORROSION
Welding imperfections in earth mat may
lead to an increase in ER from designed
value.
Coil earthing

FOR EARTH RESISTANCE

< 10 OHMS
Earth PLATE
FOR EARTH RESISTANCE
< 0.5 OHMS
S O I L R E S I S T IVI T Y
Why Measure Soil Resistivity?
Soil resistivity measurements have
a threefold purpose. First, such
data are
used to make sub-surface
geophysical surveys as an aid in
identifying ore
locations, depth to bedrock and
other geological phenomena.,
Second, resistivity
has a direct impact on the degree of
corrosion in underground
pipelines. A decrease in resistivity relates to
an increase in corrosion activity
and therefore dictates the protective
treatment to be used. Third, soil resistivity
directly affects the design of a grounding
system, and it is to that task
that this discussion is directed. When
designing an extensive grounding
system
it is advisable to locate
the area of lowest soil
resistivity in order to
achieve the most
economical grounding
installation
 Effects of Soil Resistivity
on Ground Electrode Resistance

Soil resistivity is the key

factor that determines what

the resistance of a

grounding electrode will be,

and to what depth it must be
driven to obtain
low ground resistance.
 The resistivity of the soil varies
widely throughout
the world and changes seasonally.
Soil resistivity is determined
largely by its
content of electrolytes, which
consist of moisture, minerals and
dissolved
salts. A dry soil has high
resistivity if it contains no soluble
salts
Effect of Rod Size: As you might
suspect, driving a longer rod deeper
into the earth, materially decreases its
resistance. In general, doubling
the rod length reduces resistance by
about 40 percent.. For example, note
that a rod driven 2 ft down
has a resistance of 88 Ω; the same rod
driven 4 ft down has a resistance
of about 50 Ω. Using the 40 percent
reduction rule, 88 x 0.4 = 35 Ω
reduction..
Why test grounding systems?
Over time, corrosive soils with high
moisture content, high salt content,
and high temperatures can degrade
ground rods and their connections.
So although the ground system, when
initially installed, had low earth ground
resistance values, the resistance of the
grounding system can increase if the
ground rods are eaten away.
That is why it is highly recommended
that all grounds and ground connections
are checked at least annually as a part
of your normal Predictive Maintenance
plan. During these periodic checks, if
an increase in resistance of more than
20% is measured, the technician should
investigate the source of the problem,
and make the correction to lower the
resistance, by replacing or adding
ground rods to the ground system.
What is a ground?
“a conducting connection, whether
intentional or accidental between an
electrical circuit or equipment and the
earth, or to some conducting body that
serves in place of the earth.” When
talking about grounding, it is actually
two different subjects: earth grounding
and equipment grounding. Earth
grounding is an intentional connection
from a circuit conductor, usually the
neutral, to a ground electrode placed
in the earth. Equipment grounding
ensures that operating equipment
within a structure is properly grounded.
These two grounding systems are
required to be kept separate except
for a connection between the two
systems.
What is a good ground
resistance value?
Ideally a ground should be of zero ohms
resistance. There is not one standard
ground resistance threshold that is
recognised by all agencies. However,
recommended
a ground resistance value of 5,0 ohms
or less, For housebuildings.
The telecommunications industry has
often used 5,0 ohms or less as their
value for grounding and bonding.
The goal in ground resistance is to
achieve the lowest ground resistance
value possible that makes sense
economically and physically.
ForACsupply current the reactance of the earthing
conductor is only significant in the case of
extended horizontal earthing strips or long earth
rods. In all other cases, the difference between
earth impedance and earth resistance is so
small that frequently no distinction is made between
these two quantities. The relevant industrial
standards also treat earth impedance and
earth resistance as identical.
As earthing measurements are carried out using
an AC supply, it is actually the earth impedance
that is measured. If the measurement frequency
is greater than 50 Hz, a slightly larger
earth impedance is displayed. However, overestimating
the earth impedance is not a problem,
as it errs on the side of safety.
the earth resistance
RE is the sum of the dissipation resistance RD,
the resistance of the metal conductor that
serves
as the earth electrode RM and the resistance
of the earthing conductor RC, which runs
between
the main earthing busbar and the earth
electrode. The dissipation resistance RD is the
resistance between the earth electrode and the
surrounding soil..
 Solutions to improve ER

IF SOIL RESISTIVITY OF SOIL IS VERY

HIGH

THEN SOIL TOBE TREATED ,

RECOMMENDS USING OF BENTONITE OR

SIMILAR TYPE OF SOIL WITH LESS SOIL

RESISTIVITY IN THE YARD,

THEN CONTACT RESISTANCE BETWEEN

EARTHING SYSTEM AND SOIL WILL

REDUCE AND HENCE DISSIPATING

RESISTANCE WILL BE REDUCED.

 Resistivities of Different Soils*

Soil RESISTIVITY
ohm-cm

Surface soils, loam, etc. 100 - 5,000

CLAY 200 - 10,000
Sand and gravel 5,000 - 100,000
Surface limestone 10,000 - 1,000,000
Sandstone 2,000 - 200,000
Granites, basalts, etc. 100,000
Decomposed gneisses 5,000 - 50,000
Slates, etc. 1,000 - 10,000
Resistivity Decreases with Moisture and
Dissolved Salts
In soil, conduction of current is largely
electrolytic. Therefore, the amount
of moisture and salt content of soil radically
affects its resistivity. The
amount of water in the soil varies, of course,
with the weather, time of
year, nature of sub-soil, and depth of the
permanent water table
when dry, the two types
of soil are good insulators (resistivities greater
than 1000 x 106 ohmcm).
With a moisture content of 15 percent,
however, note the dramatic
decrease in resistivity (by a factor of 100,000).
Actually, pure water has
an infinitely high resistivity. Naturally occurring
salts in the earth, dissolved
in water, lower the resistivity. Only a small
amount of salt3 can reduce
earth resistivity quite a bit.
Sodium chloride, magnesium, and copper
sulfates, or calcium chloride can be used to
increase the conductivity of the soil
immediately surround the electrodes.
Another method is to place a ground
enhancement material around the rod. Other
methods are mentioned in IEEE Std. 80-
2000 [4].
this effect
can be useful to provide a good low-resistance
electrode

in place of an
expensive, elaborate electrode system
 CURRENT INJECTION

Sources of current injection include either

a signal generator plus power amplifier, a
portable power generator, or an
auxiliary matching transformer energized
from a substation low-voltage source.
Higher currents (10 to 100 A or more) but
are restricted to the power system
frequency or
frequencies close to the power system (50
to 70 Hz).
FOR EARTHING RODS , INCREASE NO. OF
RODS AND INCREASE DEPTH OF RODS
TO IMPROVE ER DRIVE RODS TO REACH
WATER LEVEL

In Varkala substation this has been done by

drilling bore well and inserting metal pipe
instead of PVC pipe with the help of Ground
water Department.
FOR PLATE EARTHING, INCREASE NO. OF
PLATES AND DEPTH OF PLATES

FOR EARTH MAT SYSTEM PROVIDE

ADDITIONAL AREA WITH EARTH MAT
AS AREA INCREASES ,REDUCES
Design Procedures of a Grounding
System
The design process of a substation
grounding system requires many
steps. The following steps were
established by the IEEE Standard
80-2000 for the design of the
ground grid:
Ground rods may be installed at grid
corners and junction points along the
perimeter. They may also be installed at
major equipment, especially near surge
arresters.
5. The grid should extend over the entire
substation and beyond the fence line [1-3].
6. The ratio of the sides of the grid meshes are
usually 1:1 to 1:3 [1, 4].
Earth Rod length
more important
than Rod diameterApart from
considerations of mechanical strength, there
is little advantage to be gained from
increasing the earth rod diameter with the
object in mind of increasing surface area in
contact
with the soil
Earthing in difficult situations:-
The earthing resistance can be improve by any
one or more of the following methods.
1. Increase the area of the earth mat.
2. Provide deep earth electrodes.
3. Provide auxiliary earth mat in a near by
place where the resistivity is low and
connect it to the main earth mat.
4. Treating the earthmat and the electrode with
suitable chemicals.
From experiments it is found that bentonite clay which is
a naturally occurring
material is the best suited for the purpose. Bentonite
has the important properties viz.,
high conductivity, high swell index and non-corrosive
and retains moisture by
absorbing water from neighboring soil. Unlike salt bed,
this electrolyte will notgradually leach out and remains
as a part of the clay itself and will adhere to nearly
and
surface it touches. Even when exposed to sunlight, it
tends to seal itself off preventing
the drying process from penetrating deeper
FOLLOW IEEE-80 FOR EARTHING
STANDARDS.
AUXILARY TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL
EARTH TO BE CONNECTED TO EARTH
GRID AND AVOID NEUTRAL EARTHING
AT OTHER POINTS, WHICH MAY MAKE
LOOPS FOR FAULT
CURRENTS.SIMILARLY LT PANELS ARE
EARTHED AT ONE SIDE INSTEAD OF
BOTH SIDE TO AVOID CIRCULATING
CURRENT DUE TO DIFFERENCE
POTENTIAL, WHEN A FAULT OCCURS..
Now external agencies such as SRPC ask
for healthiness certificates of breaker and
dc system and certificate for earth
resistance values. Third party auditing is
also becoming common.