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• the organism:
– environmental
earlier in the chain
– behavior factors
of diseases events
– genetic
Cross-sectional studies
– are vulnerable
– provide no direct evidence of the sequence of events
– guard against selection bias, but subject to
measurement, and confounding bias
Evidence that an association is cause & effect:
Appropriate measure:
1. Observational studies:
- gathers data, simply observing events
- without playing in active part
- only feasible studying most question of risk
a. Cohort
- a group of people who have something in
common when they are first assembled, and
who are then observed for a period of time
to see what happen to them
The basic design:
yes
exposed
no
people at time
risk
yes
not exposed
no
The likelihood of exposed persons to get the disease
relative to non-exposed persons is relative risk
exposure to disease
risk factor
yes
yes: cases
no
time
yes
no: control
no data collection present
The measures effects for comparing risk
Several measures of association exposure-disease:
measures of effect: