1

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 UNDERGROUND/GROUND WATER
2

 It is the water that exists beneath the

earth’s surface in pore spaces in soil
and rocks.
 It is sometimes referred to as ground
water.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Sources of Ground Water
3

a) Rain Water
 When it rains, a lot of water infiltrates
(enters) the ground through available
openings on the surface. It percolates to the
lower parts of the rocks due to gravity.
Excess rainwater however, flows over land
and ends up in streams and rivers and flows
to the lake or sea.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Sources of Ground Water
4

b) Melt Water
 Regions which experience winter, snow accumulates on the
surface. During summer, the snow melts and the water
infiltrates into the ground and eventually percolates through
the rocks.
c) Surface Water
 Water exists on the surface of the earth in different forms
such as rivers, seas, swamps, oceans, lakes and ponds that
seep into the ground and percolates through the rocks to
become groundwater.
d) Magmatic/Plutonic Water
 This is the water that is trapped in the rocks beneath the
surface during vulcanicity.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Factors Influencing Existence of Ground Water
5

 Much of the groundwater originates from the surface of the

earth. The amount of the water that gets into the ground
depends on the Rate of infiltration which is determined by:
a) Precipitation
 The two major types are rainfall and snowfall. However,
snow takes long before infiltrating because it has to melt first.
 For ground water to exist precipitation must exceed
evaporation.
 Light rain falling over a long period of time infiltrates more
than heavy short lived downpour. Heavy downpour
saturates the ground and blocks the water passage. This
reduces rate of infiltration and increases surface runoff. Very
little rainfall may only wet the ground and even evaporate
before infiltrating.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 b) Slope
6

 On flat and gently sloping areas rain water has

ample time to infiltrate because it remains in
one place for a long time thus greater
infiltration and more ground water.
 On steep areas there is low infiltration since a
lot of water turns into runoff because of
getting less time to percolate.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 c) Nature of Rocks
7

 There is a greater possibility of existence of ground

water where there are permeable surface rocks. They
allow the water to pass through them. The more the
permeable the surface rocks, the more the water is
allowed to pass through them.
 Ground water exists where impermeable rock overlie
an impermeable one so that when water infiltrates
and percolates underground it’s trapped by
impermeable rock and accumulates above it.
 Aquifer - permeable rock which is permanently
saturated with water.
 Permeable rocks allow water to pass through them.
FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS
 Types of permeable rocks
8

 Two types
 a) Porous - Those with pores/airspaces between
rock grains through which water passes. Rock
particles are generally large (coarse) e.g.
sandstone, limestone, chalk and conglomerate.
 b) Pervious – are rocks with cracks, fractures and
joints or fissures through which water enters and
passes e.g. granite, limestone and chalk.
 N/B chalk and limestone are both porous and
pervious.
FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS
 Impermeable rocks
9

 These rocks do not allow water to pass through

them.
 They are neither pervious nor porous
Types
a) Aquifuge – are impenetrable impermeable
rocks e.g. gabbro, shale and slate.
b) Aquiclude – are porous rocks which absorb
water and expand narrowing air spaces between
grains preventing water to percolate downwards.
With more absorption, the pores close, preventing
further percolation of water downwards e.g. clay.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 d) Vegetation Cover
10

 Vegetation increases the rate of infiltration.

 This is because plants break the speed of rain
drops causing drops to hit the ground gently
giving rain water ample time to percolate.
 Thick cover of grass also slows down the
speed of runoff causing water to be held in
one place for a long time thus higher
infiltration.
 On bare surfaces most of precipitation flows
away as run off.
FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS
 e) Level of Saturation of Ground
11

 Infiltration is more on dry ground because it

has wide open air spaces while less on a
ground whose air spaces are saturated with
water.
 Precipitation causes the air spaces to be filled
up with water causing soil particles to swell or
to be washed into available air spaces thus
reducing the rate of infiltration.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 f.) Evapo-transpiration
12

 A high rate of Evapo-transpiration is due to

the low moisture content in the atmosphere.
This reduces the amount of water that is
available in the soil. This in turn increases the
rate of infiltration because of the space in the
ground for the water to occupy.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Water Table
13

 It is the level of ground water below which all

available space is saturated with water. Water
infiltrates and percolates until it reaches a layer of
impermeable rock. It occupies all the spaces above
the impermeable rock making it to be saturated.
 The upper limit of this level of saturation is the
water table
 The level of saturation changes according to the
season leading to the formation of three
underground zones of saturation as shown below:
FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS
 underground zones of saturation
14

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 underground zones of saturation
15

a) Zone of Non-saturation
 It is a zone of rock layers immediately below

the surface.
 It is a zone of permeable layers through which

water passes but doesn’t remain in the pores

for a long time.
 Well sunk to this zone doesn’t contain any
water.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 b) Zone of Intermittent Saturation
16

 It is a zone in which during the rain season the

rocks are saturated with water while during
the dry season they are unsaturated. It
fluctuates with seasons.
 Temporary water table - Upper level of
ground water in the zone of intermittent
saturation.
 Zone of non-saturation and that of
intermittent saturation are called vadose zone.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 c) Zone Of Permanent Saturation
17

 It is also called the phreatic zone

 Zone where all the rock pores and air spaces
are permanently filled with water.
 Permanent water table - Upper level of
ground water in the zone of permanent
saturation.
 Presence of ground water leads to formation
of springs, wells boreholes and artesian basins.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 1.) Springs
18

 Place where water flows out

naturally onto the earth’s surface
along a slope. It is formed where the
water table is exposed to the surface
along a slope. It can be permanent or
intermittent. They are usually
sources of rivers

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Ways/Modes Formation
19

a.) Hillside Spring

 This type is formed where a permeable rock lies
above an impermeable one on a hill and water
comes out at the junction of those two rock
layers.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 b) Dyke Spring
20

 Type formed where an igneous dyke cuts

across a layer of permeable rock.
 Ground water on the upslope side is trapped
causing water table on that side to rises.
 A spring develops where the water table is
exposed on the surface, where the dyke and
the aquifer intersect.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

21
Dyke Spring

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 c) Vauclusian Spring
22

 This type is formed where a limestone hill

or escarpment overlies an impermeable
layer.
 Well jointed rocks e.g. Limestone rock
becomes saturated with water.
 Water comes out of the ground where
water table appears on the surface.


FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 a Vauclusian Spring
23

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 d) Valley Spring
24

 Type formed where water table

intersects the surface along the side
of the valley.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 2.) Wells and boreholes
25

 They are deep holes which are dug to the

ground, often with a purpose of getting water.
Permanent wells have to be sunk until they
reach the zone of permanent saturation, but
when just sunk until the zone of intermittent
saturation or non-saturation, it will contain
water during the rain season only and dry up
later

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 3.) Artesian Basins
26

 It is a saucer shaped depression consisting of a layer

of permeable rock sandwiched between two
impermeable rocks and the whole system forms a
broad syncline.
Characteristics
 One or both ends of the permeable rocks are exposed
on the surface on a rainy area or beneath a lake.
 Water enters the permeable rock through the exposed
end or ends.
 With time the permeable rock is saturated with water
and becomes an aquifer e.g. between Chad and Egypt
across Quattara depression.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 An Artesian Basin
27

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Artesian well
28

 It is a well which is sunk into the aquifer of an artesian basin

from which water will come out by hydraulic pressure
without being pumped.
 Ideal Conditions for Formation of an Artesian Well
 Aquifer to be sandwiched between impermeable rocks to
prevent evaporation and percolation.
 Aquifer to be exposed in a region which is a source of water
e.g. rainy area or lake.
 Aquifer to dip from the region of water intake and rock
layers must form a broad syncline or basin.
 Mouth of the well must be at a lower level than the intake
area to develop hydraulic pressure which will force water
out.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Problems Associated With Artesian Wells
29

 Water may be hot due to high temperatures.

 Water may be salty because of water taking long to
percolate through rocks thus dissolving large
quantities of mineral salts.
 Water may fail to come out naturally when water is
drawn faster than it’s being replaced in the source
region and necessitating pumping.
 In Africa, artesian basins exist in North Africa from
Atlas Mountains across Tunisia to western Libya.
 Also between Chad and Egypt across the Qattara
Depression.
 In Botswana beneath Kalahari Desert

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Significance of Underground Water
30

 Source of rivers and their tributaries which have so

many uses.
 Source of water for domestic and industrial use e.g.
wells, springs, boreholes and oasis e.g. Mzima Springs
in Tsavo west National Park is a source of water for
Mombasa City.
 Ground water is used in agriculture e.g. oasis water is
used for irrigation of date palms, while cotton and
bananas in Taveta are grown using water from
springs.
 Influences settlements due to the availability of water
e.g. in deserts people settle near oasis and spring line
settlements in limestone areas

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

31

 Hot springs are a tourist attraction e.g. the hot

springs at Olkaria and at the shores of Lake
Bogoria and also their water is trapped and
pumped into houses through pipes for heating
during winter e.g. in Iceland.
 Underground streams help in keeping some
lakes fresh e.g. L. Naivasha.
 At the mouth of hot springs, valuable mineral
salts are deposited and are exploited for
economic gain.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

32

 Karst region - Region where the surface and the ground is

covered with limestone rocks.
 (The name originated from a region in the Dinaric Alps of
Croatia which is a limestone region where water action has
created unique features both on the ground and
underground.)
 Karst scenery - Unique features in a Karst region resulting
from the action of water e.g. Shimoni caves at the coast of
Kenya.
 When calcium carbonate (Caco2) is exposed to a weak
carbonic acid formed by rain dissolving CO2, it’s dissolved to
form calcium hydrogen carbonate which is removed from the
rock in solution resulting in surface and underground
features in a limestone region.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

33
Factors Influencing Development of Karst Scenery
 Surface rock and the rock below should be hard and
well jointed for acid water to percolate and cause
solution to happen e.g. limestone, chalk or dolomite.
 Climate should be hot to speed chemical weathering
and humid for availability of rain which is a solvent.
 Should have a lot of vegetation to release CO2.
 The surface rocks and the rocks beneath should be
limestone, dolomite or chalk.
 Water table should be far below the surface so that the
whole limestone rock is not dissolved and
underground features fail to be formed

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Surface Features in Limestone Areas
34

 Rainwater has weak carbonic acid which

reacts with the caco2 forming bicarbonate
which dissolves in water. The water
therefore dissolves the joints causing them
to widen and the surfaces become rugged.
A variety of features develops on the
surface of limestone areas.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

35
a) Grikes and Clints
 Clints - Blocks of limestone rock left standing
when water infiltrates through the limestone
rocks widening and deepening the joints.
 Grikes - Deep groves or gullies that criss-cross
limestone surfaces separating limestone blocks
(Clints) formed when rainwater infiltrates
through limestone rocks widening the joints
by solution.
 Water action is greater along the joints because
these are the weak parts of the rock.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

36
Grikes and Clints

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

37

 b) Swallow/Sink Holes
 Deep vertical holes formed on limestone rocks
when solution extends the grikes. The water
widens and deepens the joints, developing
vertical holes.
 Referred to as swallow/sink holes because surface
runoff or river water may disappear through
them as a waterfall and come out of the ground as
a Vauclusian spring further downhill.
 Vertical shaft from the surface of the sink hole
down into the ground is called ponor.
FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS
38

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

39

 c) Dry Valley
 It is part of the River valley in which water is no longer
flowing.
 They have no permanent streams on limestone surface at the
section between the swallow hole and where the river
emerges.
 d) Karst Window
 Small outlet to the surface from a cavern formed when
continuous carbonation at the surface causes the roof of the
cave to collapse.
 e) Limestone Gorge
 Deep steep sided river valley in limestone rocks formed when
the swallowed river causes solution to continue underground
causing the roof of underground water course to collapse.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

40

 f) Karst Bridge
 Small section left joining the roof between the Karst window
and gorge.
 g) Dolines (dolina)
 It is a round or Elliptical hollow on the surface of the
limestone region with gently sloping sides formed when
several small holes collapse and merge.
 Small holes are formed when water starts acting on the points
of convergence of joints on the surface. They are then
widened by solution which completely dissolves the rocks
between the hollows. This leaves a continuous round
depression. A sink hole may form on the floor of a doline in
which surface water may disappear.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 doline
41

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 h) Uvala
42

 Depression which may be as wide as 1 km in

diameter formed on the surface of limestone
regions when several dolines collapse and
merge.
 It forms in the same way as a doline, and may
be referred to as an enlarged Doline. It has a
relatively flat floor.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

43
i) Polje
 Largest, shallow, elliptical and flat floored
depressions on a limestone region formed when
several uvalas collapse and merge.
 Broadening of the depression is due to water
action and partly due to the tectonic forces that
cause it to sink. Streams may emerge from one
side and flow to the other side across the floor
and may disappear into a sink hole
 May become a temporary lake or may be
covered by a marsh.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Underground Features in Limestone Areas
44

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 Stalactites
45

 Finger like masses of calcite hanging vertically from

the roof of a limestone cave or cavern formed by
repeated evaporation of water due to higher
temperatures inside.
 This gives off carbon dioxide from drops of water
containing calcium bicarbonate hanging from the roof
of the cave causing crystallization of calcium
bicarbonate into calcite.
 The chemical change is a reverse process of the one
where carbonic acid and calcium carbonate were
formed.
 Ca (HCO3)2 CACO2 + H2O + CO2


FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 b) Stalagmites
46

 It is a stumpy rock mass of calcite which grows from

the floor of a limestone cave upwards formed by
repeated dripping of solution of calcium bicarbonate
from the end of stalactite to the floor of a limestone
cave then it spreads out and crystallizes.
 c) Limestone Pillars
 Pillar like structures in limestone caves formed when
stalactites and stalagmites grow towards each other
and eventually meet. It can also form when a
stalagmite grows until it touches the roof of a cave or
when a stalactite grows until it touches the floor of the
cave. The column resembles a pillar of a house

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

 d) Underground caves and caverns
47

 These are underground chambers or cavities in limestone

rocks. They are formed when;
 Underground rivers dissolve limestone in horizontal joints
forming a horizontal tunnel.
 Surface water percolates through the joints into subsurface valley
through which the underground river is flowing enlarging the
tunnel forming a phreatic cave i.e. cave below the water table
due to lowered water table.
 The water flows out at the Vauclusian spring lowering the water
table causing the phreatic cave to become a limestone cave.
 Continued solution from water percolating through the caves
roof widens and lowers its floor to form a extremely larger caves
called limestone cavern e.g. Carls band cave in New Mexico
U.S.A.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

48
Significance of Karst Scenery
Positive
 Features in Karst scenery are a tourist attraction e.g. caves,
gorges, stalactites, stalagmites, etc. they attract many tourists
who in turn bring foreign exchange to the country.
 Limestone rock is used in the manufacture of cement e.g.
cement factory at Bamburi in Mombasa and Athi River.
 Limestone blocks are also used for building.
 Limestone regions are very good for grazing particularly
sheep because the surface is dry.
 Large villages called spring line settlements form at the line
of Vauclusian springs due to the availability of water.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

49

Negative
 Limestone landscape discourages settlement
because the surface is rocky, soils are thin and
unsuitable for agriculture, surface is rugged
with features like grikes and Clints and the
water supply is inadequate due to rivers
disappearing into swallow holes.

FORM 3 GEOG--- ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS

Next topic is GLACIATION