Kuliah Bahan Bakar (Injin Pembakaran Dalaman)

FUELS
• The engine converts heat energy which is

obtained from the chemical combination of
the fuel with the oxygen, into mechanical
energy
• Since heat energy is derived from the fuel,

a fundamental knowledge of types of fuels
and their characteristics is essential in
order to understand the combustion
phenomenon.
ICE by Saidur Rahman

• Characteristics of fuel have considerable
influence on the
– design,
– efficiency,
– output and
– particularly reliability and durability of the
engine
• Fuels characteristics play a vital role in the

atmospheric pollution caused by the
engines
….. R. Smalley, Rice Univ.
In 2003, Nobel Laureate Richard E. Smalley outlined
Humanity's Top Ten Problems for the next 50 years
air pollution is the greatest risk to
human health
• Belgium 1930 : 60 deaths
• London 1953 : 4000 deaths
• European Union 2000 : 350 000 deaths

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ELECTRICITY from
COAL
UK 26%
Germany 34%
INDIA 73%
CHINA 76%

Quiz 1
• List 5 (FIVE) friction reduction strategies

in IC Engine.

TYPES OF FULES
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gaseous

SOLID FULES
• Find little application at present because
of the problem in handling
• Difficult to dispose off solid residue or ash
after combustion
• Solid fuel in the form of finely powdered
coal were attempted initially
• Quite difficult to handle, feed and store
compared to gaseous and liquids fuels

Gaseous fuels
• Ideal fuels for IC engine
• Pose very few problems
• Being gaseous, they mix more
homogeneously with the air and eliminate
the distribution and starting problems that
are encountered by liquid fuels

• Widely available energy source
• easily transported and efficient.
• Emissions of CO2 are far lower than other
fossil sources.
– Much of the world's gas reserves located in
politically unstable countries.
– Exploration for further reserves in areas such as
Alaska may cause significant environmental
destruction.

Liquid fuels
• Derivatives from liquid petroleum

• The three principal commercial types of
liquid fuels are benzyl, alcohol, and
petroleum products
• Petroleum products form the main fuels
for IC engine

Fuel Impurities
• Refined petroleum fuels can contain a variety of
undesirable impurities that originate from the
crude oil, develop during the refining process, or
are introduced during shipment or storage.
• The most common fuel impurities are:

– Metals formed during certain refining processes can
oxidize and contribute to the formation of filter
clogging gums in any type of fuel. This problem is
addressed by using a metal deactivator additive.

– Gums are high molecular weight compounds
containing hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and usually
sulfur and nitrogen.
• They are formed when the hydrocarbon molecules in stored
fuels are oxidized or polymerized after exposure to air,
sunlight, and/or elevated temperatures. When gums
precipitate from the fuel, they can clog and form deposits on
vital engine components such as filters and injectors, causing
mild to severe engine performance problems. Anti-oxidant
fuel additives can prevent the formation of gums.

• Microbial contamination occurs after fuels leave the
refinery since the refining process sterilizes fuel.
Microbes, including algae, bacteria, and fungi feed on
the fuel and use the water in the fuel for their oxygen
supply. They can multiply and plug fuel filters with an
odorous slime. Some of the microbes can also produce
corrosive acid byproducts. Minimizing water content and
treating with a biocide additive will control microbial
growth in fuel.
• Sediment is a common contaminant of fuels and
usually consists of rust, mineral scale, sand, dirt, and
other insoluble impurities. To address this problem, fuels
are filtered upon delivery into bulk and operating storage
systems to remove as much sediment as possible before
the fuel is delivered to the end user.

– Sulfur compounds can be corrosive to metals in fuel
systems and are controlled by the total sulfur content
limits found in the fuel specification.
– Water is a very common fuel impurity. Fuel can

become contaminated with water during shipping and
storage.
• Water can condense from the fuel itself, may leak into fuel
containers from the outside, or it may be present in
containers before they are filled with fuel.
• Water in fuel may also contain other impurities that can
cause corrosion problems and damage filters, pumps, and
injectors. Water is denser than fuel and can be removed as it
collects at the bottom of a storage container.

SOLID FUEL
• Coal is a solid and this limits its use as an
energy source. Can't be used in cars, planes and
other transportation applications.
• However, coal can be converted to a natural

gas-like product through a process called
gasification.
• This process has been known since the 1830s.
Unfortunately the process produces a gas with
only 25-30% of the original energy content of
the coal. Also the process is expensive.

• Coal can also be converted to a
petroleum-like liquid through a process
called liquefaction.
– Germans did it in WWII. South Africa does it
today.
– However, requires large volumes of water and
is more expensive than simply buying and
refining natural crude oil.

• Emphasis on coal in recent developments
• Reserves are huge in the world
• Coal comes from various grades (anthracite,
bituminous, subbituminous, lignite)
• Waste is affecting the environment
• Cost of transport is higher than cost of oil
• Burning coal produces several pollutants:
– Waste heat
– Acid rain (nitrogen and sulfur oxides)
– CO2 (more emitted by coal than methane)

Problems with coal
• There are many environmental problems
associated with the mining and utilization of
coal.
• Coal typically contains high sulfur. Results in
acid mine drainage and acid rain.
• Coal burning leaves and ash residue that
contains 5-20% by volume of toxic materials.
Where do we store this toxic residue?

• Coal mining, particular strip mining (the
cheapest and preferred way) destroys habitats
and vegetation. Land reclamation is possible,
but expensive.
• Underground mining is hazardous to miner's
health.
– Explosions of methane gas can occur, radon
concentrations are high, and black lung disease can
be fatal.
– It is the most hazardous job around.
• The combustion of coal produces large amounts
of CO2.
Petroleum fuels
• 99% of the worlds IC engine use liquid

fuel derived from petroleum
• In some countries where natural
petroleum is scarce, fuels having similar
composition and characteristics are being
produced by some processes

Crude oil
• Raw petroleum that come from oil wells
• Contains impurities such as water, solids
• A mixture of many HC (mainly Methane and
ethane)
• CO is separated from gasoline, kerosene, and
others by the process of fractional distillation
• contains certain fraction of organic compounds
(Sulfur , Nitrogen)
• exact composition differs widely according to
sources

REFINING CRUDE PETROLIUM
• Refining of crude oils starts with

distillation, cracking and polymerization
• In distillation, distillate is separated into
various fractions according to volatility
• Cracking is defined as reducing the
molecular size
• Polymerization is the reverse of cracking

Natural gas
• Gaseous HC associated with liquid
petroleum
• Mixture of components consisting of
mainly methane (60-98%) with small
amount of other HC fuel components

Gasoline
• Most petroleum fuels intended for use in

SI engine
• Chemical composition varies widely
depending on base crude oil and refining
method

Kerosene
• Heavier than gasoline

• Used in lamps, heaters, stoves
• Excellent fuels for CI engines and aircrafts
engine

Fuel Types-Alcohols
• One H is replaced with a hydroxyl radical

• CnH2n+1OH
• Methane (CH4) ➙ Methanol (CH3OH)
• Ethane (C2H6) ➙ Ethanol (C2H5OH)

IMPORTANT QUALITIES OF
SI ENGINE FUELS
• Volatility
• Starting and warm up
• Operating range performance
• Crankcase dilution
• Vapor lock characteristics
• Antiknock quality
• Gum deposits
• Sulphur content

Volatility
• Main characteristic properties of gasoline
which determines its suitability for use in
SI engine
• Depends on fractional composition of fuels
being mixture of different HC
• The characteristic points are the
temperatures at which 10, 40, 50, and
90% of the volume evaporates

Starting and warm up
• A certain part of gasoline should vaporize
at room temperature for easy starting of
the engine
• 0-10% boiled off relatively low boiling
temperature
• Low distillation temperatures are desirable
for best warm up

Operating range performance
• For good vaporization of gasoline, low

distillation temperatures are preferable
• Better vaporization tends to produce both
more uniform distribution of fuel to the
cylinders as well as better acceleration
characteristics by reducing the quantity of
liquid droplets in intake manifold

Crankcase dilution
• Liquid fuel in the cylinder causes loss of
lubricating oil
• This deteriorates the quantity of
lubrication and tends to cause damage to
the engine through increased friction
• Liquid gasoline may also dilute the lub oil
and weaken the oil film between rubbing
surfaces.

Vapor lock characteristics
• High rate of vaporization of gasoline can
upset the carburetor metering
• Even stop the fuel flow to the engine by
setting up a vapor lock in the fuel
passages
• This demands high boiling temperature HC
throughout the distillation range

Antiknock quality
• Abnormal burning or detonation in SI
engine causes very high temperature and
pressure
• This adversely affects thermal efficiency
• So, the fuel characteristics should be such
that it can resist tendency to produce
detonation or knock
• It depends on fuel’s chemical and
molecular structure

Gum deposits
• Reactive HC and impurities in the fuel have a
tendency to oxidize upon storage and form
liquid and solid gummy substances
• Gasoline with high gum content will cause
operating difficulties such as:
– sticking valves
– piston rings carbon deposits
– gum deposit in the manifold
– clogging of carburetor jets
– enlarging of valve stem, cylinders, and pistons

Sulphur content
• HC fuels may contain free sulphur, hydrogen
sulphide, and other sulphur compounds
• Sulphur is corrosive Elements of the fuels that
can corrode fuel lines, carburetors, and
injection pumps
• It will unite with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide
that in the presence of water at low
temperatures may form sulphusous acid

CI ENGINE FUELS
• Volatility
• Starting characteristics
• Smoking and odour
• Viscosity
• Corrosion and wear
• Handling ease
• Knock characteristics

Volatility
• The fuel should be

sufficiently volatile in
the operating range
of temperatures to
produce good mixing
and combustion

Starting characteristics
• The fuel should help in starting the engine
easily
• This requirement demands high enough
volatility to form a combustible mixture
readily

Smoking and odour
• The fuel should not promote either smoke
or odour in the engine exhaust
• Generally, good volatility is the first
prerequisite to ensure good mixing and
therefore complete combustion

Viscosity
• CI engine fuels should be able to flow
through the fuel system and the strainers
under lowest operating temperatures

Corrosion and wear
• The fuel should not cause corrosion and
wear of the engine components before or
after combustion.
• These requirements are directly related to
the presence of sulphur, ash, and residue
in the fuels

Handling ease
• The fuel should be liquid that will readily
flow under all conditions that are
encountered in actual use
• This requirement is measured by Pour,
Flash, fire point and viscosity of the fuel

Pour, Flash, fire point
• The pour point is the lowest temperature at
which a petroleum product will begin to flow.
• The flash point of a flammable liquid is the
lowest temperature at which it can form an
ignitable mixture with oxygen.
– At this temperature the vapor may cease to burn
when the source of ignition is removed.
– A slightly higher temperature, the fire point, is
defined at which the vapor continues to burn after
being ignited.

Knock Characteristics
• It occurs because of ignition lag of fuel between
the time of injection and the time of actual
burning
• As the ignition lag increases, the amount of fuel
accumulated in the combustion chamber
increases and when combustion actually takes
place, abnormal amount of energy is released
causing excessive rate of pressure rise
• Hence CI engine fuel should have a short
ignition delay and will ignite more readily

Fuel Additives
• Fuel additives are intended to help improve fuel
economy, lower maintenance costs, reduce
impurities and harmful deposits, reduce exhaust
emissions, and improve the overall performance
and reliability of the fuel.
– Different fuels may be formulated with different
"packages" of fuel additives.
• Additives may also be added to fuels during
storage or at the time of fueling.
– Often, the precise chemical composition of many fuel
additives and additive packages is proprietary to the
manufacturer. Particular combinations and percent
content of additives may be specified in a fuel's
governing standard.
• Common fuel additives include:
Alkyl lead was a common gasoline additive until
the late 1960s used to obtain higher octane
ratings and reduce engine "knock." Lead
additives have been reduced or entirely phased
out of most automotive gasoline formulations
due to the environmental hazards associated
with lead-containing exhaust emissions. As lead
additives have been phased out of gasoline
formulations, other oxygenating additives are
now used to boost octane ratings and control
knock, as well as reduce harmful exhaust
emissions.

• Anti-oxidants are primarily used to
prevent gum formation in gasolines and
aviation fuels.
• Biocides may be added to any type of
fuel to kill microbes when their growth
becomes a recurring problem.
• Conductivity additives increase the
electrical conductivity of gasolines,
aviation, and diesel fuels, thereby
reducing the buildup of static charges
during mixing, transfer, and shipment.

• Corrosion inhibitors protect against corrosion during
pipeline transfer and storage of fuels. They have also
been found to improve the lubricity, or capacity to
reduce friction of fuels. Corrosion inhibitors are used
primarily in gasolines, aviation fuels, and diesel fuels.
• Detergent additives prevent the buildup of gum
deposits in engines and extend fuel injector life. They
also help keep fuel filters clean. Detergent additives are
primarily found in diesel fuels and automotive gasolines.
• Icing inhibitors are used primarily in aviation fuels to
prevent the formation of ice crystals from entrapped
water in the fuel at freezing temperatures encountered
during high altitude flight. Icing inhibitors have also been
found to be an effective barrier to microbiological
growth. Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether is specified
for most military aviation fuels as an icing inhibitor.

Metal deactivators prevent metal contaminants
in any type of fuel from oxidizing with
hydrocarbons and other compounds to form
gums or precipitates.
Oxygenates are oxygen-containing hydrocarbons
that are added to automotive gasoline to boost
the octane rating, reduce the smog-forming
tendencies of exhaust gases, and suppress
engine knock.
– The increased oxygen content promotes more
complete combustion, thereby reducing tailpipe
emissions.
– Common oxygenating additives are methyl tertiary
butyl ether (MTBE) and ethanol.
Thermal stability additives reduce fuel fouling
of critical jet engine components.
– Thermal stability refers to the ability of the fuel to be
used in a system without degradation.
– Thermal stress results in fuel breakdown that can
cause carbon build-up on engine nozzles, afterburner
spray assemblies, and manifolds.
– In some instances, fuel degradation changes the
spray pattern in the combuster or afterburner, which
leads to damage of engine components, flameouts,
and augmentor anomalies.

Fuel attributes
economic issues: low delivered price,
performance issues; octane, cetane numbers,

high energy density, easy and safe storage,
other safety issues,
environmental issues; carbon content, volatility,

and impurities (sulfur and hazardous air
pollutants), and
sustainability issues: will the fuel be available

indefinitely or is it exhaustible?

Assignment 2
• Alternative Fuel HYDROGEN

– Introduction
– Design of hydrogen engine and its storage in
automobile
– Advantages
– Disadvantages
– Conclusion

PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESS
• The crude petroleum contains gases

(mainly methane and ethane) and certain
impurities such as: water, solids
• The crude oil is separated into gasoline,

kerosene, fuel oil, by the processes of
fractional distillation

Crude oil
• Raw petroleum that come from oil wells
• A mixture of many HC (mainly Methane and
ethane)
• CO is separated into gasoline, kerosene, and
others by the process of fractional distillation
• contains certain fraction of organic compounds
(Sulfur , Nitrogen)
• exact composition differs widely according to
sources

Gasoline
Kerosene
Diesel fuel
CRUDE
OIL
Fuel oil

REFINING CRUDE PETROLIUM
• Refining of crude oils starts with

distillation, cracking and polymerization
• In distillation, distillate is separated into
various fractions according to volatility
• Cracking is defined as reducing the
molecular size
• Polymerization is the reverse of cracking

NOTE
• Generally, the larger the molecular weight

of the components, higher is its boiling
temperature
• Low boiling temperature components
(smaller molecular weight) are used for
fuels

• Distillation is a common technique used to
separate the components of a mixture.
• The components may be miscible liquids or a
dissolved solid in a liquid. Distillation is the
process of vaporizing a liquid in one vessel and
condensing them into another vessel.
• Several types of distillation are common: simple
distillation, fractional distillation, and vacuum
distillation.
• The process by which a liquid changes to a gas
is called vaporization.

• Some of the refinery processes are as below:
• Cracking:
Breaking down large and complex hydrocarbon molecules
into simpler compounds.
Cracking is done by thermal, catalytic cracking
• Hydrogenation:
Addition of hydrogen atoms to certain HC under high T
and P to produce more desirable compounds. It is often
used to convert unstable compounds to stable ones
• Polymerization:
Process of converting olefins, into heavier and stable
compounds

• Alkylation:
Combines one olefin with an iso paraffin to produce a
branched isoparaffin in the presence of a catalyst
• Isomerization:
Changes the relative position of atoms
Cyclization:
Zoints together the ends of a straight chain molecule to
form a ring compound
• Aromatization:
Similar to cyclization except the product is an aromatic
compound

Blending
• Is a process of obtaining a product of
desired quality by mixing certain products
in some suitable proportions

RATING OF FUELS
• Normally fuels are rated for their

antiknock qualities
• Rating is done by two parameters:

Octane number and cetane number

OCTANE NUMBER
• Octane is a measurement of gasoline’s

capacity to burn smoothly and evenly.
• The higher the octane number of the
gasoline the more it resistant in producing
uneven combustion and the audible
"knock" sound which, if allowed to
continue can damage an engine.

HOW MEASURED
• Octane number is a measure of the antiknock
quality of gasoline - the ability of the gasoline to
resist knocking when it is burned in an engine.
• There are two laboratory tests to measure
octane which are run in a single-cylinder engine
operated under different conditions: Research
Octane Number (RON) and Motor octane
number (MON).
• The octane number posted on gasoline
dispensers in service stations is the Antiknock
Index (AKI) - the average of RON and MON
[(RON + MON)/2, usually abbreviated (R +
M)/2.
OCTANE NUMBER
• Octane rating number is defined as a value used
to indicate the resistance of a motor fuel to
knock.
• Octane numbers are based on a scale on which
isooctane is 100 (minimal knock) and heptane is
0 (bad knock).
• A gasoline with an octane number of 92 has the
same knock as a mixture of 92% isooctane and
8% heptane.

OCTANE NUMBER OF A MIXTURE
• If several fuels of known ON are mixed,

ON can be obtained as below:
• ONmix= (%of A)(ONA)+(% of B)(ONB)+
(%of C)(ONC)
• FUEL SENSITIVITY (FS) = RON-MON

PROBLEM

CETANE NUMBER
• The cetane number is one of the most

commonly cited indicators of diesel fuel quality
• It measures the readiness of the fuel to
autoignite when injected into the engine.
• It is generally dependent on the composition of
the fuel and can impact the engine’s startability,
noise level, and exhaust emissions.

CETANE NUMBER
• Good ignition from high cetane assists in easy
starting, starting at low temperature, low
ignition pressures, and smooth operation with
lower knocking characteristics.
• Low cetane fuel with poor ignition qualities
causes misfiring, engine deposits, rough
operation and higher knocking.
• The cetane number requirement for an engine
depends on the engine design, size, operational
speed, load condition and atmospheric
conditions.
CETANE NUMBER DETERMINATION
• Like octane number rating, cetane numbers are

established by comparing the test fuel to
standard reference fuels.
• The fuel component-cetane (hexadecane,
C16H34) is given the cetane number value of
100, while heptamethylnonane (HMN) (C12H34)
is given the value of 15.
• CN of fuel = (% of n-cetane) + (0.15)(% of
HMN)

• A 65 cetane fuel would have ignition delay
performance equivalent to that of a blend
of 65% n-cetane and 35% -
methylnaphthalene by volume

Specific gravity: A measure of the density of liquid fuels at 15.6 C
as compared with water at the same temperature.

PROBLEM

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FUELS

• The engine converts heat energy which is

• Since heat energy is derived from the fuel,

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• Fuels characteristics play a vital role in the

• Belgium 1930 : 60 deaths

• London 1953 : 4000 deaths

• European Union 2000 : 350 000 deaths

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• List 5 (FIVE) friction reduction strategies

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• Derivatives from liquid petroleum

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• The most common fuel impurities are:

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

– Water is a very common fuel impurity. Fuel can

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• However, coal can be converted to a natural

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• 99% of the worlds IC engine use liquid

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• Refining of crude oils starts with

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• Most petroleum fuels intended for use in

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• Heavier than gasoline

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• One H is replaced with a hydroxyl radical

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• For good vaporization of gasoline, low

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

• The fuel should be

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman

ICE by Saidur Rahman