BRAKING

SYSTEM
 Braking System

An automotive braking
system is a group of
mechanical, electronic
and hydraulically
activated components
which use friction / heat
to stop a moving
vehicle.
 Principle of Braking
 Common principles on which a braking
system depends when stopping a car is
friction and heat. By applying resistance, or
friction, to a turning wheel, a vehicle's
brakes cause the wheel to slow down and
eventually stop, creating heat as a
byproduct. The rate at which a wheel can
be slowed depends on several factors
including vehicle weight, braking force and
total braking surface area.
 Energy Conversion

The brake system converts the

kinetic energy of vehicle motion into
heat
Overview
 Brakes convert kinetic energy into
heat by creating friction
 System must have very high
reliability
 Brake system is actually an energy conversion
device that converts kinetic energy (car in
motion possessing momentum) to potential
energy (car stopping) through dissipating heat
and noise to the surrounding air. The friction
surfaces of the brake pads on a disc brake, or
the brake shoes on a drum brake convert the
forward motion of the vehicle into heat. Heat is
what causes the friction surfaces
 Requirement of Braking System

 Most engines generate a large amount of

power to get the car up to speed quickly
 To stop the car, an equal amount of power
must be expended to stop the car.
 Brakes turn the power of the rolling wheel
to heat.
 The quicker you stop, the more power is

required, the more heat is generated

Requirement of brakes:
The function of brakes is to stop the vehicle within the
required time. The brake of the vehicle absorbs all the
energy given by the engine plus that due to the momentum
of the vehicle. This energy must then be dissipated. In most
of the vehicles, the energy is absorbed by the brakes in the
form of heat and dissipated into the stream of air passing
around the vehicle.
Apart from stopping the vehicle the brakes should
perform the others function too like the vehicle should stop
without any jerk and the retardation should be smooth. Also
the rate of retardation should be equal to the pedal effort and
the effort applied by the driver to stop the vehicle should not
be excessive. The rate of wear should also be low. The brake
system should not be affected by water, heat, and dust etc. It
should require a very low maintenance and durable.
Factors Governing Braking

 Pressure
 The amount of friction generated between moving
surfaces contacting one another depends in part on
the pressure exerted on the surfaces.
 Coefficient of friction
 The amount of friction between 2 surfaces (pads and
rotors or shoes and drums)
 Determined by dividing the force required to pull an
object across a surface by the weight of the object
Friction
 Factors Governing Braking

 Frictional Contact Surface

 The amount of surface, or area, that is in contact.
 Simply put, bigger brakes stop a car more quickly
than smaller brakes used on the same car.
 Heat Dissipation
 Thetremendous heat created by the rubbing brake
surfaces must be conducted away from the pad
and rotor (or shoe and drum) and be absorbed by
the air.
 Importance of Brakes

 Loss of brakes can cause accidents,

death, and injury
 When working on brakes, keep in

mind that peoples lives are at stake

 If in doubt, seek help
 Brake rules
The car must have four wheel brakes operated by
a single control.
It must have two independent hydraulic circuits
with independent fluid reserves.
The brake system must be capable of locking all
four (4) wheels, and stopping the vehicle in a
straight line.
The braking systems must be protected with
scatter shields from failure of the drive train )
A brake pedal over-travel switch must be installed.
This switch must kill the ignition and cut the power
to any electrical fuel pumps.
The car must be equipped with a red brake light
that illuminates when ever the brakes are applied
How does a braking system work?

 When the brake pedal is depressed, the

pressure on the brake pedal moves a
piston in the master cylinder, forcing the
brake fluid from the master cylinder
through the brake lines and flexible hoses
to the calipers and wheel cylinders. The
force applied to the brake pedal produces
a proportional force on each of the
pistons.
 continued

 The calipers and wheel cylinders contain

pistons, which are connected to a disc brake
pad or brake shoe. Each output piston pushes
the attached friction material against the surface
of the rotor or wall of the brake drum, thus
slowing down the rotation of the wheel. When
pressure on the pedal is released, the pads and
shoes return to their released positions. This
action forces the brake fluid back through the
flexible hose and tubing to the master cylinder.
 Classification of brakes

In automobile generally two types

of brakes are used :-
 Mechanical brakes

 Air brakes & vaccum brakes

 Mechanical Brakes
 Mechanical brakes all act by
generating frictional forces as two
surfaces rub against each other.
The stopping power or capacity of
a brake depends largely on the
surface area of frictional surfaces
as well as on the actuation force
applied. The friction and wear
encountered by the working
surfaces are severe. Thus, the
durability of a brake or service life
between maintenance depends
heavily on the type of material
used to line the shoe or pad.

 Air Brakes
 The compressed air is used for obtaining brake
application. The brake pipe and feed pipe run
throughout the length of the coach. Brake pipe and
feed pipe on consecutive coaches in the train are
coupled to one another by means of respective hose
couplings to form a continuous air passage from the
locomotive to the rear end of the train. The
compressed air is supplied to the brake pipe and
feed pipe from the locomotive. The magnitude of
braking force increases in steps with the
corresponding reduction in brake pipe pressure and
vice-versa.
Air Brakes
 Vacuum Brakes
 The vacuum brake system derives its brake
force from the atmospheric pressure acting on
the lower side of the piston in the vacuum brake
cylinder while a vacuum is maintained above
the piston. The train pipe runs throughout the
length of the coach and connected with
consecutive coaches by hose coupling. The
vacuum is created in the train pipe and the
vacuum cylinder by the ejector or exhauster
mounted on the locomotive.

Vacuum Brakes
Vacuum Brake Boosters
 Types of Braking System
 Hydraulic System
 Master Cylinder
 Brake Line
 Wheel Cylinders or Calipers

 Foundation Brakes
 Brake Linings or Pads
 Brake Drums or Rotors
 Parking Brake System
 Brake Assist Units
Reason for Hydraulics
 Air can be compressed
 Fluid cannot be compressed
 Fluid pressure in one place will be felt with the
same strength everywhere the fluid goes
 When you press the brake pedal, the force is
transmitted to the foundation brakes on each
wheel
Hydraulic Principles
An example of how hydraulics can increase
output force
 Basic Hydraulic System
 When the
brake pedal is
pressed, the
piston forces
fluid out
through the
brake lines
to the wheel
cylinders (or
calipers)
Hydraulic System Configurations

There are two layouts of hydraulic brake systems

used in cars and light trucks.
Front/Rear hydraulic split:
Also called axle by axle, vertical, and some times
“black and white”.
Diagonal Split:
Also called criss-cross.

The type of split is only significant in the event

of a hydraulic system failure.
 Front/rear Hydraulic Split

Primary System

Front Axle
Rear Axle

Secondary System
Diagonal Split System
 In a diagonal split system, one brake line
is run to each rear brake and one to each
front brake.
 The connections are such that the left
front and the right rear brake are on one
circuit and the right front and left rear are
on the other circuit
Typical Diagonal Split System

Right front Left front

left rear right rear
Brake Component Function
Four Sub-systems
 Actuation sub-system
 Foundation sub-system
 Parking brake sub-system
 ABS & ESP (electronic stability
program) sub-system
Actuation Sub-system

 Brake Pedal
 Master Cylinder
 Proportioning Valves
 Brake Lines
 The Brake Pedal
Output to
master cylinder
Hydraulic
400 N
actuation allows
and 5:1 Nominal multiplication of
36 mm Pedal Ratio pedal force.
In this system, a
10lb force on the
Driver Input pedal produces
360 lbs of force at
the friction
100 N and 144 mm surface
 Master Cylinder

 Contains a reservoir of
brake fluid
 A small piston is

connected to the brake

pedal
 When the pedal is
pushed, it builds
pressure on the fluid
(up to 10,000 PSI)
Master Cylinder
 Provides a reservoir for brake fluid and contains
the driving pistons in the hydraulic circuit
 2 Types
Front - Rear split
-One piston for front brakes and one for rear
-If a leak occurs you could lose front brakes
Diagonally split
-One piston drives one front wheel and one rear
wheel
-Diagonal layout allows you to maintain directional
control if a leak occurs
Master Cylinder
How the Master Cylinder Works
 A pushrod connects the brake pedal to the
master cylinder piston.
 When the pedal is pressed, the piston is
pushed forward and the fluid in front of the
piston is displaced into the brake system
moving the pads and shoes into contact
with the drums and rotors.
 As more force is placed on the brake
pedal, the fluid transmits force throughout
the system.
 Master Cylinder Operation
 At rest:-
 Fluid in the reservoir
can flow into the area
ahead of the piston
through the
compensating port.
 This keeps the system
full and prevents
pressure build-up
during temperature
changes
 Master Cylinder Operation

 Applied:-
 Thepiston is moved
forward blocking the
compensating port
forming a sealed pump
Cham
 Master Cylinder Operation
 Brake release
 When the pedal is
released the piston
return springs force
the piston back.
 The piston cup seal
collapses and fluid
flows past to allow
speedy piston return
and pressure
decrease
Master Cylinder Components
Brake System Valves
 Metering valve
 Delays application of front disc brakes until
pressure builds to rear drum brakes.
 Proportioning valve
 Reduces the hydraulic pressure to the rear drum
brakes to balance braking.
 Pressure differential valve
 Used to operate a warning light switch.
 Combination valve
 Combines several functions in one valve.
A Proportioning Valve
Pressure Differential Valve
Combination Valve
 Brake Linings
 Brake linings are composed of a relatively soft but tough and
heat-resistant material with a high coefficient of dynamic
friction (and ideally an identical coefficient of static friction)
typically mounted to a solid metal backing using high-
temperature adhesives or rivets. The complete assembly
(including lining and backing) is then often called a brake pad
or brake shoe. The dynamic friction coefficient "µ" for most
standard brake pads is usually in the range of 0.35 to 0.42.
This means that a force of 1000 kg (or pounds) on the pad will
give a resulting brake force close to 400 kg (or pounds). There
are some racing pads that have a very high µ of 0.55 to 0.62
with excellent high temperature behavior.
Brake Lining Materials
 Fully metallic
 Lining is made of sintered iron and has been used
for years in heavy-duty and racing applications
because they have great fade resistance.
 They require very high pedal pressure and tend to
quickly wear out drums and rotors.
Brake Lining Materials
 Semi-metallic
 Made of iron fibres moulded with an adhesive
matrix.
 Offers excellent fade resistance with good
frictional characteristics so only a moderate
amount of application pressure is needed.
 Semi-metallic pads and shoes do not cause
excessive wear on rotor or drum surfaces.
Brake Lining Materials
 Organic (non-metallic)
 For many decades, asbestos was the standard
brake lining material.
 It offers good friction qualities, long wear, and low
noise.
 New materials, such as composite/organic,
ceramics, and carbon fibres, are being used
because of the health hazards of breathing
asbestos dust.
Brake Lining Material
 Synthetic
 Non-asbestos lining materials made of synthetic
substances are now available.
 The major brake lining manufacturers are
constantly experimenting with new materials that
meet all established criteria for long life, friction
characteristics, drum and rotor wear, and heat
dissipation.
Foundation Sub-System

Types of Foundation Brakes

 Drum

 Older style used mainly on the rear brakes

 Lots of moving parts

 Disc
 Newer style used on front brakes
 Some cars may have 4 wheel brakes
 Drum Brakes
 With drum brakes, fluid
is forced into the wheel
cylinder, which pushes
the brake shoes out so
that the friction linings
are pressed against the
drum, which is attached
to the wheel, causing
the wheel to stop.
Drum Brake Parts
 Brake Shoes (5, 12)
 Backing Plate (14)
 Return Springs (3,
13)
 Hold Down Springs
(11)
 Self Adjusting Parts
(4, 7, 8, 10)
 Wheel Cylinder
 Parking Brake (6, 9)
 Drums
 PARTS OF DRUM BRAKING SYSTEM

 Brake Shoes
Like the disk pads, brake shoes consist of a steel
shoe with the friction material or lining riveted or
bonded to it. Also like disk pads, the linings
eventually wear out and must be replaced. If the
linings are allowed to wear through to the bare metal
shoe, they will cause severe damage to the brake
drum.
 Backing Plate
The backing plate is what holds everything
together. It attaches to the axle and forms a solid
surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and
assorted hardware. It rarely causes any problems.
 CONTINUED

 Brake Drum
Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined
surface on the inside where the shoes make
contact. Just as with disk rotors, brake drums will show
signs of wear as the brake linings seat themselves
against the machined surface of the drum. When new
shoes are installed, the brake drum should be machined
smooth. Brake drums have a maximum diameter
specification that is stamped on the outside of the drum.
When a drum is machined, it must never exceed that
measurement. If the surface cannot be machined within
that limit, the drum must be replaced.
 Wheel Cylinder
 The wheel cylinder consists of a
cylinder that has two pistons, one on
each side. Each piston has a rubber
seal and a shaft that connects the
piston with a brake shoe. When brake
pressure is applied, the pistons are
forced out pushing the shoes into
contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders
must be rebuilt or replaced if they show
signs of leaking.
Drum Brake Operation
 The wheel cylinder forces the brake shoes
apart
 The shoes are forced against a drum

 The friction changes rotary energy into

heat energy which slows the car
 The harder the shoes are forced apart, the
faster the car stops
 Drum Brakes
 Expanding shoes
create force on the
inner surface of the
drum
 Used on the rear of
some trucks and
SUV’s
 Self-energizing design
requires less
activation force
 Require periodic
adjustment
Drum Brakes
Disc Brake Parts
 Calipers (4)
 Brake Pads

 Rotors (3)
 Construction
 Disc brakes use a cast iron
rotor, inboard of the vehicle
wheel.
 Both sides of the rotor are
machined smooth for the
brake pads to rub against.
 Usually the 2 surfaces are
separated by a finned centre
section for better cooling
(ventilated rotors).
 The pads are attached to
metal shoes, which are
actuated by pistons housed in
the brake calliper.
Disc Brake Operation
 A piston inside the
caliper pushes the
brake pads toward
each other
 The rotor is located
between the pads
 The squeezing effect
causes friction which
slows the car
 Disk Brakes
 Caliper squeezes
pads to create force
on the surfaces of
the rotor.
 Used in most
automotive
applications.
 Benefits:
 Simple design
 Self adjusting
 Rotor venting
allows faster heat
dissipation
2 Types of disk brake calipers

 Floating caliper
 Pistonpushes
pad against the
inner rotor
surface, reaction
force causes the
caliper to slide
and contact the
outer surface
2 Types of disk brake calipers
 Fixed caliper has at
least one piston on
each side
 Each piston drives
it’s corresponding
pad into contact
with the rotor
Disc Brake Material

A disc brake
usually made of
cast iron or
ceramic
composites
(including carbon,
Kevlar and silica).
 DESIGN
The design of the disc varies
somewhat. Some are simply solid
cast iron, but others are hollowed
out with fins or vanes joining
together the disc's two contact
surfaces. This "ventilated" disc
design helps to dissipate the
generated heat and is commonly
used on the more-heavily-loaded
front discs.
Many higher performance brakes
have holes drilled through them.
This is known as cross-drilling A cross-drilled disc on a modern
motorcycle
A railroad bogie and disc brakes
Parking Brake Sub-System

Parking Brakes
 Can be foot operated or console mounted
 Both use a cable attached to the rear brakes
 As the cable is pulled, a lever forces the brake
shoes apart
 This mechanically locks the brakes for parking
Parking Brake
 The parking brake is a mechanical brake
operated through a separate hand lever or
pedal; it applies parking-brake mechanisms
usually at the two rear wheels. Most
automotive vehicles have power-assisted
braking, where a hydraulic or vacuum booster
increases the force applied by the driver to the
service-brake pedal.
Parking Brake for Rear Wheels
Adjusting the Parking Brake
 Usually not necessary unless the shoes
are worn
 Some parking brakes are self adjusting

 Locate the adjusting nut (under the lever

or under the car) and tighten until you
have sufficient parking brake
 Power brake systems
 Power brake systems on your vehicle are what help you
easily press your brakes when needed. These systems
are usually a simple vacuum booster attached to your
brake pedal, but can also be powered by your power
steering system in a hydro boost setup, or be a fully
electronic brake system.
 Most vehicles use the vacuum booster to assist your
brakes. This is a simple system containing a brake
booster and a vacuum check valve. Some cars also
require a vacuum pump to assure there is enough
vacuum to operate the brakes. This system only works
when the car is running otherwise there will not be any
vacuum to operate the brakes.
 Power-assisted Braking
 Power-assisted braking is provided by a hydraulic or
vacuum booster. As the brake pedal is depressed, the
booster furnishes most of the force to push a pushrod into
the master cylinder. The power piston in the hydraulic
booster is operated by oil pressure from the power-
steering pump or from a separate pump driven by an
electric motor. In the vacuum booster, a diaphragm usually
is suspended in a vacuum supplied from the engine intake
manifold or from a vacuum pump driven by the engine or
an electric motor. Depressing the brake pedal allows
atmospheric pressure to act against one side of the
diaphragm. The resulting pressure differential moves the
diaphragm and power piston, which forces the pushrod
into the master cylinder.
Power Assist Units
 Some hydraulic brake systems have no power
assistance
 The pressure applied is dependant on how
much pressure you can apply
 Many systems use power assist units
 Can be vacuum, electrical, or hydraulic
powered
 Power Assistance
 Power booster reduces
pedal force required to stop
vehicle
 Engine vacuum is used to
actuate a large diaphragm
 When the pedal is
depressed, vacuum is
applied to only one side of
the diaphragm and force is
applied to the master
cylinder push rod
 Booster stores sufficient
vacuum for several brake
applications if the engine
fails.
Power Booster in closed position
Vacuum Assist Units
 Uses engine
vacuum to add to
the force of you foot
when applying
brakes
 Leaking seals
can cause lose
of assist
(hard brakes) or
lose of brake fluid
 Electric Assist Brakes
 Uses on newer cars
 Not user serviceable

 Some cars use an electronic brake system. This

system has an electric motor, a hydraulic pump
and an accumulator as well as a computer
system to assist your brakes. These systems are
very complex and require many special tools to
repair. It is also the more expensive system of
the three to repair.
 ABS sub-system
 Anti-lock brake systems
 Anti-lock brake systems are designed to minimize and
control wheel lock up during braking. Wheel lock, also
known as wheel slippage, can have a dramatic affect on
the control of the vehicle during braking. Wheels that are
locked up, with the tires sliding across the road surface,
cannot be controlled by the vehicle operator. The driver is
just along for the ride until wheel slippage is reduced to a
point where vehicle control is regained. Braking
performance is also affected by wheel slippage. The
effectiveness of the automotive braking system depends
on the ability of the tires to grip the road surface.
Components of ABS
 ABS CONTROL MODULE
 WHEEL SPEED SENSORS
 HYDRAULIC MODULATOR
 ABS WARNING LIGHT
 ABS CONTROL MODULE
 The ABS control module is a microprocessor that is
used to manage the operation of the ABS system.
The ABS control module monitors and processes
information from various sensors, modulates
pressure to the brake system and carries out self-
diagnostic tasks. Some of the inputs to the ABS
module are the wheel speed sensors, brake switch,
brake warning light, parking brake switch, pressure
modulation devices and ignition and power feeds.
The output controls consist of brake pressure
modulation components and the anti-lock brake
lamp.
 WHEEL SPEED SENSORS
 Wheel speed sensors are used by the ABS
control module to monitor wheel lock up. Wheel
speed sensors consist of a toothed wheel,
mounted on the wheel hub or axle shaft, so as
to rotate when the wheel is in motion. A
magnetic sensor is placed at a fixed location, a
calibrated distance from the toothed wheel. The
air gap between the toothed wheel and the
magnetic sensor is usually around .040 to .060
in
 HYDRAULIC MODULATOR
 Brake lock up control is accomplished by rapidly
applying and releasing the brakes of the affected
wheel. To achieve this, the ABS control module
is able to modulate brake hydraulic pressure to
individual wheels. Brake pressure modulation is
attained through several different methods.
Design of the pressure modulation system varies
according to vehicle design. One type of brake
pressure modulator system uses solenoid
operated valves to control brake pressure to
individual wheels.
 ABS warning light
The ABS warning light operation is managed by the
ABS control module. It is located in or near the
instrument cluster and is used to warn the vehicle
operator of a malfunction in the ABS system. In the
event of a failure in the ABS system, the ABS
warning lamp is illuminated to warn the driver. Some
systems will inhibit ABS operation when the ABS
lamp is illuminated. Refer to a manufacturer's
manual covering your particular year/make/model
automobile for the diagnostic and troubleshooting
details before embarking on an auto repair project
involving the ABS system.
 Brake Fluid
 Brake fluid is a type of hydraulic fluid used in brake
applications for automobiles and light trucks. It is
used to transfer force under pressure from where it
is created through hydraulic lines to the braking
mechanism near the wheels. Braking applications
produce a lot of heat so brake fluid must have a high
boiling point to remain effective and must not freeze
under operating conditions. Brake fluid is also
designed to protect against corrosion of the system
materials it contacts, however those corrosion
inhibitors deplete over time. Excessive moisture is
also an issue.
 Brake Bleeding
 Brake bleeding is the procedure performed on
hydraulic brake systems whereby the brake
lines (the pipes and hoses containing the brake
fluid) are purged of any air bubbles. This is
necessary because, while the brake fluid is an
incompressible liquid, air bubbles are
compressible gas and their presence in the
brake system greatly reduces the hydraulic
pressure that can be developed within the
system.
 Procedure of Brake Bleeding
 The process is performed
by forcing clean, bubble-
free brake fluid through the
entire system, usually from
the master cylinder(s) to
the calipers of disc brakes
(or the wheel cylinders of
drum brakes), but in certain
cases in the opposite
direction. A brake bleed
screw is normally mounted
at the highest point on each
cylinder or caliper.
disk brake bleed screw
 Methods of Brake Bleeding
There are four main methods of bleeding:
Pump & Hold (2 variations)
 Vacuum

 Pressure

 Reversed Pressure

Pump & Hold generally requires two people, the

other methods can be done by a single person.
 Pump and Hold Method

 One person pumps the brake pedal to

compress the air, then holds pressure on
it. The other person opens the bleeder
valve to let out fluid and air, then closes
the valve after the pedal has landed (to
prevent air being sucked back in through
the valve on the upstroke).
 Vacuum Method
 The master cylinder is
topped off and the cover left
loose. A specialized vacuum
pump is attached to the
bleeder valve, which is
opened and fluid extracted
with the pump until it runs
clear of bubbles. Once
again, the master cylinder
reservoir level must be
maintained. The vacuum
method can also draw in air
via the bleeder threads, so
the bubbles will never clear.
Vacuum bleeding a disk brake caliper
 Pressure Method
 A specialized pressure
pump, is attached to the
master cylinder and filled
with fluid. The pump is used
to pressurize the system to
about 10psi, and the bleeder
valves are opened one at a
time until the fluid is clear of
air. One advantage to this
system is that the pump
reservoir usually holds
enough fluid that running dry
is not likely. This is the
method most professional
shops use.
Pressure bleeding a brake system
 Reverse Pressure Method

 In this method, a pump is used to force

fluid through the bleeder valve to the
master cylinder. This method may have
advantages in some cases, however it
is not in common usage.
Diagnosing Brake Problems
 Noisy brakes
 Worn linings
 Low lining warning

 Glazed linings

 Low brake pedal

 Broken line
 Low brake fluid

 Worn linings
Diagnosing Brake Problems
 Spongy pedal
 Airin the brake lines
 Damaged foundation brakes

 Leaking master cylinder

 Brake pull
 Wheel cylinder stuck
 Brake fluid or oil leak

 Bad or loose suspension parts

Diagnosing Brake Problems
 Brake vibration
 Warped rotors
 Out of balance tires