Descriptive

Research
Observation:

Can you see the behavior?

Is it a sensitive topic?

Do you have a lot of time?

Do you know what you are looking for?

Natural Observation

No intervention
- behavior as it normally occurs

useful for external validity or if ethical concerns about

manipulation

e.g book carrying example

Type 1 - 1 or both arms around books short edges on hip
Type 11- one arm at side long edges horizontal to the
ground

82% type 1 female 3% male

96% type 11 male 16% female
Observation with intervention

- may cause an event that is rare or normally hard to see

- investigate the change in response with stimulus
- establish link between antecedent and consequent behaviors
- manipulate independent variable.

Eg
Simon and Levin - change blindness
Crusco & Wetzel - waitress touch and tip
Participant Observation

- disguised or undisguised
- takes part in the behavior and reports on it
(journalist and anthropology)

eg Rosenhan - sane in insane places

Festinger - cognitive dissonance
Problems

-observer can lose objectivity because they are part of the event

-subject reactivity if known observation (eg stop sign observation)

- subject demand characteristics

- participating may change the event and the outcomes for others

- natural hazards for field work

Bias always a possibility

- observe what you want & fulfill expectations

eg stop observing when nothing happens so over-report
activity

- may change criteria with time

- boredom or fatigue impact

- delay in transcribing may not be exact record

Solutions

Unobtrusive or disguised observation

- or trace information

Habituation to group helps reactivity

‘Blind’ scoring helps bias

Short sessions helps fatigue

Structured Observation

Situation is set up and then participants enter more

controlled environment
-often clinical or developmental lab setting
one way mirror videos. Eg Piaget

Field Experiments

Manipulate IV in natural setting

eg leopard and chimp
Record what??

Goal is to describe behavior as fully and accurately as

possible

Need to use samples of behavior - cannot record

everything.

Typically use
1) checklist of predetermined behaviors (eg Bobo)
2) qualitative narrative
3) quantitative event counts ratings.
Time Sampling

Choose time intervals to record behavior -

systematic, random or both

eg observe children in 2 hours in morning class

may not generalize to whole day so 4 sessions of
30 minutes spread across day better

or 30 minutes randomly chosen

Event Sampling

If event infrequent or long then time sampling not

good -could miss all or part of behavior

So record how often predetermined behavior occurs

eg response to unpredictable events

cannot know when they will occur so timing will miss

eg newcomer to class
Situation Sampling

To improve external validity

observe in different locations, conditions etc

eg animals in captivity or wild

children at home or school

Subject Sampling

If there are many subjects may need to select

some for observation
Observer Reliability

use more than one observer and check inter-observer

reliability - correlation

Improves with clear definitions and training

% time agreement == 100 * number of agreement/

number of opportunities
Quantitative Measures

Typically nominal scale (categories counted)

eg book carrying example

Rating common

Interval and ratio less common

personal space
duration
Survey research

Mail survey
- quick efficient convenient
- no response bias a problem (60% + response
acceptable 30% typical)
- participants answer in any order

Written questionnaires generally need to be self-

explanatory and short
Written Questionnaire

- simple questions best

- be specific
- no double questions (eg have you experienced
headache and nausea in last week?)
- no double negatives ( if you have not had no headaches
in last week….)
- no ambiguous questions
- no leading questions
- short
- readable
- order can matter general to specific is usually best
Often rank scale
Likert scale 1-7

Specific categories best

Do you get headaches frequently rarely etc…

better choice
headaches 0-1 2-3 3-4 times a week

people may define terms like rare or often differently

Interviews

More open ended complex questions and follow up

questions possible
Order of questions controlled

phone - relatively easy but no-response bias and

selection problems (unlisted numbers etc)

in person- very time consuming and expensive

Problems recording bias and leading questions
Designs

Cross sectional design

one or more samples drawn at same time

Independent samples successive

same survey different times
eg presidential approval rating

Longitudinal
same respondents surveyed over time
huge effort to track people