Brain Development &

Physical Growth
PSYC 230
8-11 February 2019
Brain Development
 Sensitive Periods in Brain
Development
 Stimulation vitally important when brain is growing rapidly (i.e.,
infancy and childhood)

 Experience-expectant Brain Growth

 Ordinary experiences “expected” by brain to grow naturally
 Early, natural

 Experience-dependent Brain Growth

 Additional growth as a result of specific learning experiences
 Individual, throughout life-span
 Experience-Expectant

 Skills and information the brain expects and

is primed for being exposed to the
environmental experience
 Results in a rewiring of the brain

 E.g., language – the brain expects sounds like

words to develop a language system

 Sensitive periods for experience-expectant

growth
 Generally early in life
 Experience-Dependent

 Additional skills developed over

the lifespan (that the brain
doesn’t expect)
 No optimal period for
experience-dependent learning
 Older adults may struggle due to
memory decline or physical
impairments

 E.g., Eskimo child knowing how

to build an igloo
Major Milestones of Brain
Development
 Lots of synapses in
first two years in
auditory, visual,
language areas

 Prefrontal Cortex

 Programmed Cell
Death and Synaptic
Pruning
 Lateralization of Cerebral Cortex

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

 Sensory information and control of  Sensory information and control of
right side of body left side of body

 Verbal abilities  Spatial abilities

 Positive emotions  Negative emotions

 Sequential, analytical processing  Holistic, integrative processing

May be reversed in left-handed people or brain may just be less specialized

Why is the brain
lateralized?
 Evolved to cope more
successfully with demands

 Diversity in processing style

means we can do more things
 Brain Plasticity

 In infants and young children, parts of the

brain are not yet specialized.

 High plasticity = high capacity for learning

 Recover better from brain injury

 Older children, even adults, have some

plasticity.

 Plasticity = brain can recover from injury

 Infancy and Early Childhood

 90% of brain development happens before age 5

 Myelination of neurons streamlines function

 Largely complete at age 2
 Part of the reason we see more coordinated and smoother movements

 Brain volume stabilizes in middle childhood (6-11 years)

 Brain Development in Adolescence

 Connectivity in cerebral cortex expands and allows

rapid communication
 Prefrontal cortex = executive
 Improved cognitive skills
 Still fine tuning: self-restraint, planning, future
orientation skills

 Changes in emotional/social network

 Stronger emotions
 Surge in sexual feelings

 Prefrontal cortex is fully connected to rest of brain

around 25
 Brain Development in Adulthood

 Brain loses 5-10% of its weight between the ages of 20 and 90

 Shrinkage of neurons
 Lower number of synapses
 Reduced length of axon

 Declines in brain functioning begin at 25.

 Slowing of function in brain and spinal cord affects physical coordination
and intellectual performance
 Brain Lateralization Decreases

 Lateralization decrease
actually is an attempt to
improve functioning

 Older brains rewire to

compensate for losses

 Brain growth and loss is

tied to use.

Note: This is a brain with

Alzheimer’s – not a normal
aging brain.
 Sleep affects our brain.

 And our sleep patterns

become more disturbed
with age.

 50% of older adults have

sleep difficulties
 Tied to an earlier death
 Linked to lower cognitive
functioning
 Sleep in Adolescence
 Need almost as much sleep as
infants and children, but go to
bed later
 Biological phase delay
 Social habits

 Lack of sleep impairs regulation

of attention, emotion
 Lower achievement
 Mood problems
 High-risk behaviors
 Sleep in Adulthood

 Wakeful periods become

more frequent in the 40s
 Sleep-disordered breathing
and restless legs syndrome
Physical Growth
 Periods of Physical Growth

 Physical growth and maturity differ between species

 Mice reach “maturity” in a few weeks (2% of their lifespan)
 Chimpanzees in 7 years (16% of lifespan)
 Humans spend 20% of lifespan in immaturity

 Prolonged physical immaturity is adaptive

 Allows extra time to acquire higher level knowledge and skills
 Allows our brains to develop
 Height Curves

Amount of
growth at
each year

Average
size at
each year
 Growth in Height & Weight

 Rapid growth after birth, but slows

in early and middle childhood
Age Average Amount of Growth
 In infancy, babies grow to half their 3 months 2.5 in & 3 lbs
adult height and can quadruple
4-6 months 2.5 in & 4 lbs
birth weight
7-9 mo 2.5 in & 4 lbs
 Average growth ages 2-11 2.5
10-12 mo 2.5 in & 3 lbs
inches, 5-10 pounds per year
2nd year 1 in & 2 lbs every 3 months
 Puberty is a second period of
accelerated growth
 Changes in Muscle-Fat Makeup
(until adolescence)
Fat Muscle
• Peaks at 9 months, regulate body temp
Birth/Infancy Added slowly
• Girls have more

Toddlerhood • Slim down Added slowly

From around age 8, girls add more fat on

Childhood arms, legs, trunk than boys
Added slowly

• Girls add Boys add much more

Adolescence
• Boys lose than girls
 Skeletal Growth

 Skeletal age – measure of the development of the

bones of the body
 Best indicator of physical maturity

 Bones gradually ossify from cartilage to bone

through childhood
 Exception: skull  reaches adult-level hardness at
age 2

 Epiphyses  growth centers at the end of bones

 Produce cartilage cells
 Disappear by end of adolescence
Skeletal Maturity of Toddler
Compared to Teenager
What things influence how fast and
big children grow?
 Influences on Growth

 Nutrition

 Heredity

 Toxins

 Infectious Diseases

 Emotional Well-being
 Nutrition

 Especially important in first 2 years

 Infants’ energy needs are large because 25% of their calories are
devoted to growth
Nutrition in Childhood and Adolescence

 Appetite unpredictable in preschool-age

children
 Like familiar foods and foods they see their
parents eating
 Need structured choices
 Too much parental control limits self-control.

 During puberty, rapid growth increases

food intake.
 Eating habits often poorest at this age
 Often skip breakfast
 Social environment influences food choices.
 Toxins

• Example: Lead
• From paint, corroded pipes, living
near airports and industry
• Levels of lead in the blood are
positively associated with
distractibility, overactivity, and
behavior problems
• Cognitive consequences were
greater for low SES children
• Nutrition
• Chaotic home
 Heredity vs. Environment

 When diet and health are adequate, heredity is the strongest predictor
of physical growth

 “catch-up growth”
 Infectious Diseases

• Many children in developing nations lack routine

immunizations.
 70% of child deaths in these countries are due to infectious diseases

 Effects of disease are compounded by diet

 Poor diet suppresses immune system.

 Disease contributes to malnutrition.

 Hinders physical and cognitive development
 Immunizations

 20% of U.S. infants and toddlers not fully

immunized
 30% of preschoolers not fully immunized
 Outbreaks of diseases are occurring more
frequently
 Immunizations are free, but doctor visits are
not
 Misconceptions
about vaccines
 Emotional Well-being
 Growth faltering
 Often due to disturbed parent–child relationship
 Weight, height, and head circumference below norms; withdrawn and
apathetic

 Psychosocial dwarfism
 Emotional deprivation reduces GH secretion, causes serious adjustment
problems
Puberty
 Hormonal Influences on Growth

Hypothalamus
initiates and
regulates pituitary
secretions

Hormones for
human growth
released by
pituitary
 Hormonal Influences on Growth

 Growth hormone – produced throughout life, affects all

tissues except CNS and genitals
 Doubles in puberty
 Stimulates liver and epiphyses to release IGF-1 (triggers cell
duplication)
 2% of children have a deficiency

 Thyroid stimulating hormone – prompts releases of

thyroxine (necessary for brain development and GH to
work)
 Hormonal Changes

 Growth hormone and thyroxine increase around ages 8 to 9

 Estrogens
 More in girls
 Increase GH secretion
 Feminization of body

 Androgens
 More in boys
 Testosterone – muscle growth, body and facial hair
 Puberty
Primary Sexual Secondary Sexual
Characteristics Characteristics
 Maturation of the reproductive organs  Other visible parts of body that signal
sexual maturity
 Mark beginning of ability to
reproduce  Girls: breasts

 Beginning  Boys: facial hair, voice change

 Girls: menarche
 Both: underarm and pubic hair
 Boys: spermache
What predicts when adolescents will
go through puberty?
 Heredity
 Nutrition, exercise
 Body fat in girls

 Geographical location
 Rural vs. Urban

 SES
 Ethnic Group
 Early family experiences
 Consequences of the Timing of
Puberty

Older Peers,
more stress,
declining
academic
achievement
 Factors in how adolescents respond
to timing of puberty
 Body Image
 Girls: most want to be thinner, smaller
 Boys: most want to be bigger
 (Strong predictor of self-esteem)

 Fitting in with peers

 Prefer similar level of physical maturity
Physical Development in Adulthood
 Early Adulthood

 Peak physical performance typically occurs between

19 and 26
 Full height, proportional limbs, energetic

 Muscle tone and strength usually begin to show

signs of decline around age 30
 Sagging chins and protruding abdomens
 Lessening of physical abilities

 Sensory systems show little change in physical

adulthood
Schultz & Curnow (1988). Peak performance and age among super athletes: Track
and field, swimming, baseball, tennis, and golf. J. of Gerontology, 43, 113-120.
 Health in Early Adulthood

 Few chronic health problems, but TWICE the mortality rate of

adolescents

 Increase in bad health habits

 Positive health behaviors  positive life satisfaction

 Middle Adulthood

 Visible signs of physical changes

 Wrinkling and sagging of skin
 Appearance of aging spots
 Hair becomes thinner and grayer
 Nails become thicker and more brittle
 Yellowing of teeth
 Lose height and gain weight
 Factors that influence Physical
Changes
 Physical Decline
 Depends on lifestyle
choices
 Fall from peak fitness by
mid to late 30s
 Diet
 Lifestyle choices catch
up – may lead to disease  Exercise
and chronic health  Smoking
issues.  Alcohol use
 Drug abuse
 Strength, Joints, & Bones…Oh my.

 Sarcopenia – age-related loss of muscle mass and strength

 Cushions for bone movement become less efficient

 Leads to joint stiffness and more difficulty moving

 Progressive bone loss

 Sensory System Loss:
Vision and Hearing
 Accommodation of the eye  ability to focus and maintain an image
on the retina
 Sharp declines between 40-59 years
 Difficulty viewing close objects
 Reduced blood supply decreases visual field

 Hearing begins to decline by age 40

 High pitched sounds are typically lost first
 Let’s test it!
 Middle Adulthood:
Health and Disease
 Frequency of accidents declines
 Individuals are less susceptible to colds and allergies
 Stress is still important – indirect influence as well
 Key factor in disease
 Cumulative stress

 Immune system functioning decreases with age

 Culture plays an important role in coronary disease
 Ni-Hon-San Study – immigrants modified healthy practices even as genetic
predispositions remain constant
 Physical Development: Sexuality

 Climacteric  midlife transition in which fertility declines

 Menopause  cessation of a woman’s menstrual periods
 During late 40s or early 50s
 May cause hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, and rapid heartbeat
 Perimenopause  transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no periods at all
 Hormone Replacement Therapy  treats unpleasant side effects of menopause by
augmenting hormone levels

 Men  hormonal changes

 Decline in sexual hormone level and activity
 Erectile dysfunction inability to achieve and maintain an erection
 Physical Appearance in Late
Adulthood

 Wrinkles and age spots

 Shorter with ageing because of

bone loss in vertebrae

 Weight drops after age 60 (and

muscle loss) – saggy appearance
Physical Movement
Sensory Changes: Vision
 Decreases in visual acuity, color vision, and
depth perception

 Diseases of the Eye

 Cataracts – thickening of the lens causing
vision to become cloudy, opaque, and
distorted
 Glaucoma – damage to the optic nerve because
of pressure from a buildup of fluid in the eye
 Macular degeneration – deteriorating macula
of the retina (focal center of the visual field)
 Sensory Changes: Hearing

 Impairments become an
impediment

 Hearing aids and

cochlear implants
minimize problems
 SES
 Sensory Change: Smell and Taste
 Losses begin at about 60
 Number of taste buds and olfactory cells
decrease with age
 Medication use may interfere
 Changes in taste and smell may affect
appetite and food intake
 Serious change in ability to detect smells
after age 80
 Sensory Change:
Touch and Pain
 Begin to detect touch less in lower extremities
 Decreased blood flow to nerve endings or to
spinal cord and brain
 Health problems

 Decreased sensitivity to pain can help adults to

cope with disease and injury
 Mask injuries and illnesses that need to be
treated

 Increased risk of injuries and having problems

because of injuries
 Circulatory System & Lungs

 Increase in cardiovascular
disorders with age

 High blood pressure can be

related to illness, obesity,
anxiety, stiffening of blood
vessels, and lack of exercise

 Lung capacity drops 40%

between ages 20 and 80.
Health Problems
 Probability of having
some disease or illness
increases with age
 Immune
System
 Declines in
functioning with age
 Ability to make
antibodies
 Exercise is good for you.

 Linked to increased longevity and fewer

chronic diseases. 1. Moderate Exercise is still
exercise. Walking,
 Treatment for diseases typically works swimming, gardening, etc.
better. are all good.

 Improves cellular function and immune 2. Start slow. Breathe.

system.
3. Warm up.
 Slows motor skills decline
4. Talk to doctor.
 Reduces likelihood of mental health
problems and the negative effects of stress 5. Stay hydrated.
 Causes of Death in the US
 Chronic diseases are the main cause of
death Other
Heart Diseases

 First half of middle age  cancer more

than heart disease 53% men
51%
 Second half of middle age  heart
disease more than cancer women

 Men tend to have higher mortality rates

than women
Suicide
53% men
Neprhitis/Nephrosis
Cancer
Flu & Pneumonia
Heart disease
Unintentional
injuries/accidents Diabetes

64% men
Chronic lower respiratory Cancer
disease
Chronic liver disease Alzheimer's
Unintention
Diabetes al Injuries
Cerebrovascular disease
Suicide Cerebrovascular
Unintention

Heart
Septicemia
al Injuries

Diseases
Nephritis/Nephrosis
Defects
Chronic Lower
CDC for 2016
Unintention Accidents
al Injuries Respiratory
Diseases
End Test 1.